https://www.babhanwiki.com/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=JalewarBabhan Wiki - User contributions [en]2026-09-06T17:21:03ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.46.0https://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=%E2%80%8BHistorian_Views_and_Research_on_Bhumihars&diff=1048Historian Views and Research on Bhumihars2026-09-05T13:14:15Z<p>Jalewar: </p>
<hr />
<div>The following historians and researchers have offered their opinions on Bhumihars.<br />
<br />
== C.A. Bayly ==<br />
British Historian C.A. Bayly in page no. 207 of his book, "Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire" Part 2, Volume 1, published by the "Cambridge University Press" United Kingdom, describes the Bhumihars. <br />
[[File:C. A. Bayly book.jpg|thumb|preview of the book. ]]<br />
He writes, Bhumihar Brahmin - 'landholding' brahmin caste which had adopted the agrarian life style of the Rajput (q.v.); common in the Benares region.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=fX2zMfWqIzMC&printsec=frontcover&source=gb_mobile_entity&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&hl=en&gl=IN&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Bhumihar&f=false Bayly, C. A. (1987).] [https://books.google.co.in/books?id=fX2zMfWqIzMC&printsec=frontcover&source=gb_mobile_entity&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&hl=en&gl=IN&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Bhumihar&f=false Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. page no.207]</ref> <br />
<br />
== Audrey Truschke ==<br />
[[File:Audrey Truschke book on Benaras .jpg|thumb|source snippet ]]<br />
Historian Audrey Truschke, who specializes in South Asian History, in her book Truschke, A. (2025). India: 5,000 Years of History on the Subcontinent. United States: Princeton University Press, terms the Bhumihars as Brahmins.<br />
<br />
She writes in the page no. 320 of her book<blockquote>In the early to mid-eighteenth century, new rulers emerged in Benares. Regionally, it became part of Awadh, whose Nawabs broke away from the Mughals in the 1720s. Locally, the '''Brahmin Bhumihar''' family seized control in the 1730s, becoming Benares zamindars.</blockquote><ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books/about/India.html?id=Ri82EQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=kp_read_button&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&gboemv=1&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Truschke, A. (2025). India: 5,000 Years of History on the Subcontinent. United States: Princeton University Press. page no. 320]</ref><br />
<br />
== William Dalrymple ==<br />
William Dalrymple writes about the Bhumihars in his book Dalrymple, W. (2004). The Age of Kali: Indian Travels & Encounters. India: Penguin Books Limited. <br />
[[File:William Dalrymple, the age of Kali.jpg|thumb|source preview ]] <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
He describes the Bhumihars as Brahmins who had converted to Buddhism during the reign of Emperor Ashoka and were denied readmittance into the Priestly class once Hindu revival happened. They were still high-caste but lost place from the top of the caste pyramid.<blockquote>Bhumihar: Brahmins who had converted to Buddhism at the time of the Emperor Ashoka, around 300 BC, and who had then been denied readmittance to the priestly caste when Indian Buddhism was wiped out by an aggressive Hindu revival a thousand years later, Bhumihars were still high-caste, but they had never quite regained the top place in the caste pyramid they had lost 250 years before the Romans first arrived in Britain.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=NcwDAQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gb_mobile_entity&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&hl=en&gl=IN&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Bhumihar&f=false Dalrymple, W. (2004). The Age of Kali: Indian Travels & Encounters. India: Penguin Books Limited.]</ref></blockquote><br />
<br />
== Jeremy Black ==<br />
[[File:Jeremy Black Military Historian .jpg|thumb|Source preview ]]<br />
Infantry. A Global History by Jeremy Black, Published in 2025, by Pen & Sword Military, first published in Great Britain. [[Special:BookSources/9781399050470|ISBN 978 1 39905 047 0]] <br />
<br />
In page 55-56 he wtites.<blockquote>Many Brahmins of north India took to agriculture and joined the army as infantry. They lost their status as Brahmins and became Bhumihars (below Brahmins but above Rajputs).<ref>[https://archive.org/details/23-black-infantry.-a-global-history Infantry: A Global History. Jeremy Black. 2025. Pen & Sword Military. pg no.56]</ref> </blockquote><br />
<br />
== References ==</div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=%E2%80%8BHistorian_Views_and_Research_on_Bhumihars&diff=1004Historian Views and Research on Bhumihars2026-08-31T19:41:49Z<p>Jalewar: /* Jeremy Black */</p>
<hr />
<div>The following historians and researchers have offered their opinions on Bhumihars.<br />
<br />
== C.A. Bayly ==<br />
British Historian C.A. Bayly in page no. 207 of his book, "Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire" Part 2, Volume 1, published by the "Cambridge University Press" United Kingdom, describes the Bhumihars. <br />
[[File:C. A. Bayly book.jpg|thumb|preview of the book. ]]<br />
He writes, Bhumihar Brahmin - 'landholding' brahmin caste which had adopted the agrarian life style of the Rajput (q.v.); common in the Benares region.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=fX2zMfWqIzMC&printsec=frontcover&source=gb_mobile_entity&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&hl=en&gl=IN&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Bhumihar&f=false Bayly, C. A. (1987).] [https://books.google.co.in/books?id=fX2zMfWqIzMC&printsec=frontcover&source=gb_mobile_entity&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&hl=en&gl=IN&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Bhumihar&f=false Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. page no.207]</ref> <br />
<br />
== Audrey Truschke ==<br />
[[File:Audrey Truschke book on Benaras .jpg|thumb|source snippet ]]<br />
Historian Audrey Truschke, who specializes in South Asian History, in her book Truschke, A. (2025). India: 5,000 Years of History on the Subcontinent. United States: Princeton University Press, terms the Bhumihars as Brahmins.<br />
<br />
She writes in the page no. 320 of her book<blockquote>In the early to mid-eighteenth century, new rulers emerged in Benares. Regionally, it became part of Awadh, whose Nawabs broke away from the Mughals in the 1720s. Locally, the '''Brahmin Bhumihar''' family seized control in the 1730s, becoming Benares zamindars.</blockquote><ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books/about/India.html?id=Ri82EQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=kp_read_button&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&gboemv=1&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Truschke, A. (2025). India: 5,000 Years of History on the Subcontinent. United States: Princeton University Press. page no. 320]</ref><br />
<br />
== William Dalrymple ==<br />
William Dalrymple writes about the Bhumihars in his book Dalrymple, W. (2004). The Age of Kali: Indian Travels & Encounters. India: Penguin Books Limited. <br />
[[File:William Dalrymple, the age of Kali.jpg|thumb|source preview ]] <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
He describes the Bhumihars as Brahmins who had converted to Buddhism during the reign of Emperor Ashoka and were denied readmittance into the Priestly class once Hindu revival happened. They were still high-caste but lost place from the top of the caste pyramid.<blockquote>Bhumihar: Brahmins who had converted to Buddhism at the time of the Emperor Ashoka, around 300 BC, and who had then been denied readmittance to the priestly caste when Indian Buddhism was wiped out by an aggressive Hindu revival a thousand years later, Bhumihars were still high-caste, but they had never quite regained the top place in the caste pyramid they had lost 250 years before the Romans first arrived in Britain.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=NcwDAQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gb_mobile_entity&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&hl=en&gl=IN&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Bhumihar&f=false Dalrymple, W. (2004). The Age of Kali: Indian Travels & Encounters. India: Penguin Books Limited.]</ref></blockquote><br />
<br />
== Jeremy Black ==<br />
[[File:Jeremy Black Military Historian .jpg|thumb|Source preview ]]<br />
Infantry. A Global History by Jeremy Black, Published in 2025, by Pen & Sword Military, first published in Great Britain. [[Special:BookSources/9781399050470|ISBN 978 1 39905 047 0]] <br />
<br />
In page 55-56 he wtites.<blockquote>Many Brahmins of north India took to agriculture and joined the army as infantry. They lost their status as Brahmins and became Bhumihars (below Brahmins but above Rajputs).<ref>[https://archive.org/details/23-black-infantry.-a-global-history Infantry: A Global History. Jeremy Black. 2025. Pen & Sword Military. pg no.56]</ref></blockquote></div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=File:Jeremy_Black_Military_Historian_.jpg&diff=1003File:Jeremy Black Military Historian .jpg2026-08-31T19:41:28Z<p>Jalewar: </p>
<hr />
<div>Jeremy Black explains Martial Brahmin theory for the Bhumihars.</div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=%E2%80%8BHistorian_Views_and_Research_on_Bhumihars&diff=1002Historian Views and Research on Bhumihars2026-08-31T19:37:43Z<p>Jalewar: /* William Dalrymple */</p>
<hr />
<div>The following historians and researchers have offered their opinions on Bhumihars.<br />
<br />
== C.A. Bayly ==<br />
British Historian C.A. Bayly in page no. 207 of his book, "Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire" Part 2, Volume 1, published by the "Cambridge University Press" United Kingdom, describes the Bhumihars. <br />
[[File:C. A. Bayly book.jpg|thumb|preview of the book. ]]<br />
He writes, Bhumihar Brahmin - 'landholding' brahmin caste which had adopted the agrarian life style of the Rajput (q.v.); common in the Benares region.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=fX2zMfWqIzMC&printsec=frontcover&source=gb_mobile_entity&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&hl=en&gl=IN&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Bhumihar&f=false Bayly, C. A. (1987).] [https://books.google.co.in/books?id=fX2zMfWqIzMC&printsec=frontcover&source=gb_mobile_entity&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&hl=en&gl=IN&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Bhumihar&f=false Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. page no.207]</ref> <br />
<br />
== Audrey Truschke ==<br />
[[File:Audrey Truschke book on Benaras .jpg|thumb|source snippet ]]<br />
Historian Audrey Truschke, who specializes in South Asian History, in her book Truschke, A. (2025). India: 5,000 Years of History on the Subcontinent. United States: Princeton University Press, terms the Bhumihars as Brahmins.<br />
<br />
She writes in the page no. 320 of her book<blockquote>In the early to mid-eighteenth century, new rulers emerged in Benares. Regionally, it became part of Awadh, whose Nawabs broke away from the Mughals in the 1720s. Locally, the '''Brahmin Bhumihar''' family seized control in the 1730s, becoming Benares zamindars.</blockquote><ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books/about/India.html?id=Ri82EQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=kp_read_button&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&gboemv=1&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Truschke, A. (2025). India: 5,000 Years of History on the Subcontinent. United States: Princeton University Press. page no. 320]</ref><br />
<br />
== William Dalrymple ==<br />
William Dalrymple writes about the Bhumihars in his book Dalrymple, W. (2004). The Age of Kali: Indian Travels & Encounters. India: Penguin Books Limited. <br />
[[File:William Dalrymple, the age of Kali.jpg|thumb|source preview ]] <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
He describes the Bhumihars as Brahmins who had converted to Buddhism during the reign of Emperor Ashoka and were denied readmittance into the Priestly class once Hindu revival happened. They were still high-caste but lost place from the top of the caste pyramid.<blockquote>Bhumihar: Brahmins who had converted to Buddhism at the time of the Emperor Ashoka, around 300 BC, and who had then been denied readmittance to the priestly caste when Indian Buddhism was wiped out by an aggressive Hindu revival a thousand years later, Bhumihars were still high-caste, but they had never quite regained the top place in the caste pyramid they had lost 250 years before the Romans first arrived in Britain.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=NcwDAQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gb_mobile_entity&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&hl=en&gl=IN&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Bhumihar&f=false Dalrymple, W. (2004). The Age of Kali: Indian Travels & Encounters. India: Penguin Books Limited.]</ref></blockquote><br />
<br />
== Jeremy Black ==<br />
Infantry. A Global History by Jeremy Black, Published in 2025, by Pen & Sword Military, first published in Great Britain. [[Special:BookSources/9781399050470|ISBN 978 1 39905 047 0]] <br />
<br />
In page 55-56 he wtites.<blockquote>Many Brahmins of north India took to agriculture and joined the army as infantry. They lost their status as Brahmins and became Bhumihars (below Brahmins but above Rajputs).<ref>[https://archive.org/details/23-black-infantry.-a-global-history Infantry: A Global History. Jeremy Black. 2025. Pen & Sword Military. pg no.56]</ref></blockquote></div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=File:William_Dalrymple,_the_age_of_Kali.jpg&diff=1001File:William Dalrymple, the age of Kali.jpg2026-08-31T19:37:09Z<p>Jalewar: </p>
<hr />
<div>Bhumihar Buddhist theory believed by William Dalrymple.</div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=%E2%80%8BHistorian_Views_and_Research_on_Bhumihars&diff=1000Historian Views and Research on Bhumihars2026-08-31T19:34:22Z<p>Jalewar: /* Audrey Truschke */</p>
<hr />
<div>The following historians and researchers have offered their opinions on Bhumihars.<br />
<br />
== C.A. Bayly ==<br />
British Historian C.A. Bayly in page no. 207 of his book, "Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire" Part 2, Volume 1, published by the "Cambridge University Press" United Kingdom, describes the Bhumihars. <br />
[[File:C. A. Bayly book.jpg|thumb|preview of the book. ]]<br />
He writes, Bhumihar Brahmin - 'landholding' brahmin caste which had adopted the agrarian life style of the Rajput (q.v.); common in the Benares region.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=fX2zMfWqIzMC&printsec=frontcover&source=gb_mobile_entity&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&hl=en&gl=IN&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Bhumihar&f=false Bayly, C. A. (1987).] [https://books.google.co.in/books?id=fX2zMfWqIzMC&printsec=frontcover&source=gb_mobile_entity&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&hl=en&gl=IN&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Bhumihar&f=false Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. page no.207]</ref> <br />
<br />
== Audrey Truschke ==<br />
[[File:Audrey Truschke book on Benaras .jpg|thumb|source snippet ]]<br />
Historian Audrey Truschke, who specializes in South Asian History, in her book Truschke, A. (2025). India: 5,000 Years of History on the Subcontinent. United States: Princeton University Press, terms the Bhumihars as Brahmins.<br />
<br />
She writes in the page no. 320 of her book<blockquote>In the early to mid-eighteenth century, new rulers emerged in Benares. Regionally, it became part of Awadh, whose Nawabs broke away from the Mughals in the 1720s. Locally, the '''Brahmin Bhumihar''' family seized control in the 1730s, becoming Benares zamindars.</blockquote><ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books/about/India.html?id=Ri82EQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=kp_read_button&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&gboemv=1&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Truschke, A. (2025). India: 5,000 Years of History on the Subcontinent. United States: Princeton University Press. page no. 320]</ref><br />
<br />
== William Dalrymple ==<br />
William Dalrymple writes about the Bhumihars in his book Dalrymple, W. (2004). The Age of Kali: Indian Travels & Encounters. India: Penguin Books Limited. <br />
<br />
He describes the Bhumihars as Brahmins who had converted to Buddhism during the reign of Emperor Ashoka and were denied readmittance into the Priestly class once Hindu revival happened. They were still high-caste but lost place from the top of the caste pyramid.<blockquote>Bhumihar: Brahmins who had converted to Buddhism at the time of the Emperor Ashoka, around 300 BC, and who had then been denied readmittance to the priestly caste when Indian Buddhism was wiped out by an aggressive Hindu revival a thousand years later, Bhumihars were still high-caste, but they had never quite regained the top place in the caste pyramid they had lost 250 years before the Romans first arrived in Britain.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=NcwDAQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gb_mobile_entity&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&hl=en&gl=IN&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Bhumihar&f=false Dalrymple, W. (2004). The Age of Kali: Indian Travels & Encounters. India: Penguin Books Limited.]</ref></blockquote><br />
<br />
== Jeremy Black ==<br />
Infantry. A Global History by Jeremy Black, Published in 2025, by Pen & Sword Military, first published in Great Britain. [[Special:BookSources/9781399050470|ISBN 978 1 39905 047 0]] <br />
<br />
In page 55-56 he wtites.<blockquote>Many Brahmins of north India took to agriculture and joined the army as infantry. They lost their status as Brahmins and became Bhumihars (below Brahmins but above Rajputs).<ref>[https://archive.org/details/23-black-infantry.-a-global-history Infantry: A Global History. Jeremy Black. 2025. Pen & Sword Military. pg no.56]</ref></blockquote></div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=File:Audrey_Truschke_book_on_Benaras_.jpg&diff=999File:Audrey Truschke book on Benaras .jpg2026-08-31T19:33:38Z<p>Jalewar: </p>
<hr />
<div>Audrey Trushke Book, describing Bhumihar Maharaja of Benaras as Brahmin Bhumihar.</div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=%E2%80%8BHistorian_Views_and_Research_on_Bhumihars&diff=998Historian Views and Research on Bhumihars2026-08-29T22:44:28Z<p>Jalewar: /* Jeremy Black */</p>
<hr />
<div>The following historians and researchers have offered their opinions on Bhumihars.<br />
<br />
== C.A. Bayly ==<br />
British Historian C.A. Bayly in page no. 207 of his book, "Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire" Part 2, Volume 1, published by the "Cambridge University Press" United Kingdom, describes the Bhumihars. <br />
[[File:C. A. Bayly book.jpg|thumb|preview of the book. ]]<br />
He writes, Bhumihar Brahmin - 'landholding' brahmin caste which had adopted the agrarian life style of the Rajput (q.v.); common in the Benares region.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=fX2zMfWqIzMC&printsec=frontcover&source=gb_mobile_entity&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&hl=en&gl=IN&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Bhumihar&f=false Bayly, C. A. (1987).] [https://books.google.co.in/books?id=fX2zMfWqIzMC&printsec=frontcover&source=gb_mobile_entity&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&hl=en&gl=IN&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Bhumihar&f=false Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. page no.207]</ref> <br />
<br />
== Audrey Truschke ==<br />
Historian Audrey Truschke, who specializes in South Asian History, in her book Truschke, A. (2025). India: 5,000 Years of History on the Subcontinent. United States: Princeton University Press, terms the Bhumihars as Brahmins.<br />
<br />
She writes in the page no. 320 of her book<blockquote>In the early to mid-eighteenth century, new rulers emerged in Benares. Regionally, it became part of Awadh, whose Nawabs broke away from the Mughals in the 1720s. Locally, the '''Brahmin Bhumihar''' family seized control in the 1730s, becoming Benares zamindars.</blockquote><ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books/about/India.html?id=Ri82EQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=kp_read_button&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&gboemv=1&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Truschke, A. (2025). India: 5,000 Years of History on the Subcontinent. United States: Princeton University Press. page no. 320]</ref><br />
<br />
== William Dalrymple ==<br />
William Dalrymple writes about the Bhumihars in his book Dalrymple, W. (2004). The Age of Kali: Indian Travels & Encounters. India: Penguin Books Limited. <br />
<br />
He describes the Bhumihars as Brahmins who had converted to Buddhism during the reign of Emperor Ashoka and were denied readmittance into the Priestly class once Hindu revival happened. They were still high-caste but lost place from the top of the caste pyramid.<blockquote>Bhumihar: Brahmins who had converted to Buddhism at the time of the Emperor Ashoka, around 300 BC, and who had then been denied readmittance to the priestly caste when Indian Buddhism was wiped out by an aggressive Hindu revival a thousand years later, Bhumihars were still high-caste, but they had never quite regained the top place in the caste pyramid they had lost 250 years before the Romans first arrived in Britain.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=NcwDAQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gb_mobile_entity&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&hl=en&gl=IN&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Bhumihar&f=false Dalrymple, W. (2004). The Age of Kali: Indian Travels & Encounters. India: Penguin Books Limited.]</ref></blockquote><br />
<br />
== Jeremy Black ==<br />
Infantry. A Global History by Jeremy Black, Published in 2025, by Pen & Sword Military, first published in Great Britain. [[Special:BookSources/9781399050470|ISBN 978 1 39905 047 0]] <br />
<br />
In page 55-56 he wtites.<blockquote>Many Brahmins of north India took to agriculture and joined the army as infantry. They lost their status as Brahmins and became Bhumihars (below Brahmins but above Rajputs).<ref>[https://archive.org/details/23-black-infantry.-a-global-history Infantry: A Global History. Jeremy Black. 2025. Pen & Sword Military. pg no.56]</ref></blockquote></div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=%E2%80%8BHistorian_Views_and_Research_on_Bhumihars&diff=997Historian Views and Research on Bhumihars2026-08-29T22:36:04Z<p>Jalewar: </p>
<hr />
<div>The following historians and researchers have offered their opinions on Bhumihars.<br />
<br />
== C.A. Bayly ==<br />
British Historian C.A. Bayly in page no. 207 of his book, "Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire" Part 2, Volume 1, published by the "Cambridge University Press" United Kingdom, describes the Bhumihars. <br />
[[File:C. A. Bayly book.jpg|thumb|preview of the book. ]]<br />
He writes, Bhumihar Brahmin - 'landholding' brahmin caste which had adopted the agrarian life style of the Rajput (q.v.); common in the Benares region.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=fX2zMfWqIzMC&printsec=frontcover&source=gb_mobile_entity&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&hl=en&gl=IN&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Bhumihar&f=false Bayly, C. A. (1987).] [https://books.google.co.in/books?id=fX2zMfWqIzMC&printsec=frontcover&source=gb_mobile_entity&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&hl=en&gl=IN&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Bhumihar&f=false Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. page no.207]</ref> <br />
<br />
== Audrey Truschke ==<br />
Historian Audrey Truschke, who specializes in South Asian History, in her book Truschke, A. (2025). India: 5,000 Years of History on the Subcontinent. United States: Princeton University Press, terms the Bhumihars as Brahmins.<br />
<br />
She writes in the page no. 320 of her book<blockquote>In the early to mid-eighteenth century, new rulers emerged in Benares. Regionally, it became part of Awadh, whose Nawabs broke away from the Mughals in the 1720s. Locally, the '''Brahmin Bhumihar''' family seized control in the 1730s, becoming Benares zamindars.</blockquote><ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books/about/India.html?id=Ri82EQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=kp_read_button&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&gboemv=1&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Truschke, A. (2025). India: 5,000 Years of History on the Subcontinent. United States: Princeton University Press. page no. 320]</ref><br />
<br />
== William Dalrymple ==<br />
William Dalrymple writes about the Bhumihars in his book Dalrymple, W. (2004). The Age of Kali: Indian Travels & Encounters. India: Penguin Books Limited. <br />
<br />
He describes the Bhumihars as Brahmins who had converted to Buddhism during the reign of Emperor Ashoka and were denied readmittance into the Priestly class once Hindu revival happened. They were still high-caste but lost place from the top of the caste pyramid.<blockquote>Bhumihar: Brahmins who had converted to Buddhism at the time of the Emperor Ashoka, around 300 BC, and who had then been denied readmittance to the priestly caste when Indian Buddhism was wiped out by an aggressive Hindu revival a thousand years later, Bhumihars were still high-caste, but they had never quite regained the top place in the caste pyramid they had lost 250 years before the Romans first arrived in Britain.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=NcwDAQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gb_mobile_entity&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&hl=en&gl=IN&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Bhumihar&f=false Dalrymple, W. (2004). The Age of Kali: Indian Travels & Encounters. India: Penguin Books Limited.]</ref></blockquote><br />
<br />
== Jeremy Black ==<br />
Infantry. A Global History by Jeremy Black, Published in 2025, by Pen & Sword Military, first published in Great Britain. [[Special:BookSources/9781399050470|ISBN 978 1 39905 047 0]] <br />
<br />
In page 55-56 he wtites.<blockquote>Many Brahmins of north India took to agriculture and joined the army as infantry. They lost their status as Brahmins and became Bhumihars (below Brahmins but above Rajputs).</blockquote></div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=%E2%80%8BHistorian_Views_and_Research_on_Bhumihars&diff=996Historian Views and Research on Bhumihars2026-08-28T12:06:30Z<p>Jalewar: </p>
<hr />
<div>The following historians and researchers have offered their opinions on Bhumihars.<br />
<br />
== C.A. Bayly ==<br />
British Historian C.A. Bayly in page no. 207 of his book, "Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire" Part 2, Volume 1, published by the "Cambridge University Press" United Kingdom, describes the Bhumihars. <br />
[[File:C. A. Bayly book.jpg|thumb|preview of the book. ]]<br />
He writes, Bhumihar Brahmin - 'landholding' brahmin caste which had adopted the agrarian life style of the Rajput (q.v.); common in the Benares region.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=fX2zMfWqIzMC&printsec=frontcover&source=gb_mobile_entity&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&hl=en&gl=IN&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Bhumihar&f=false Bayly, C. A. (1987). Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. page no.207]</ref> <br />
<br />
== Audrey Truschke ==<br />
Historian Audrey Truschke, who specializes in South Asian History, in her book Truschke, A. (2025). India: 5,000 Years of History on the Subcontinent. United States: Princeton University Press, terms the Bhumihars as Brahmins.<br />
<br />
She writes in the page no. 320 of her book<blockquote>In the early to mid-eighteenth century, new rulers emerged in Benares. Regionally, it became part of Awadh, whose Nawabs broke away from the Mughals in the 1720s. Locally, the '''Brahmin Bhumihar''' family seized control in the 1730s, becoming Benares zamindars.</blockquote><ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books/about/India.html?id=Ri82EQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=kp_read_button&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&gboemv=1&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Truschke, A. (2025). India: 5,000 Years of History on the Subcontinent. United States: Princeton University Press. page no. 320]</ref><br />
<br />
== William Dalrymple ==<br />
William Dalrymple writes about the Bhumihars in his book Dalrymple, W. (2004). The Age of Kali: Indian Travels & Encounters. India: Penguin Books Limited. <br />
<br />
He describes the Bhumihars as Brahmins who had converted to Buddhism during the reign of Emperor Ashoka and were denied readmittance into the Priestly class once Hindu revival happened. They were still high-caste but lost place from the top of the caste pyramid.<blockquote>Bhumihar: Brahmins who had converted to Buddhism at the time of the Emperor Ashoka, around 300 BC, and who had then been denied readmittance to the priestly caste when Indian Buddhism was wiped out by an aggressive Hindu revival a thousand years later, Bhumihars were still high-caste, but they had never quite regained the top place in the caste pyramid they had lost 250 years before the Romans first arrived in Britain.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=NcwDAQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gb_mobile_entity&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&hl=en&gl=IN&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Bhumihar&f=false Dalrymple, W. (2004). The Age of Kali: Indian Travels & Encounters. India: Penguin Books Limited.]</ref></blockquote></div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=%E2%80%8BHistorian_Views_and_Research_on_Bhumihars&diff=995Historian Views and Research on Bhumihars2026-08-28T12:04:16Z<p>Jalewar: </p>
<hr />
<div>The following historians and researchers have offered their opinions on Bhumihars.<br />
<br />
== C.A. Bayly ==<br />
British Historian C.A. Bayly in page no. 207 of his book, "Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire" Part 2, Volume 1, published by the "Cambridge University Press" United Kingdom, describes the Bhumihars. <br />
[[File:C. A. Bayly book.jpg|thumb|preview of the book. ]]<br />
He writes, Bhumihar Brahmin - 'landholding' brahmin caste which had adopted the agrarian life style of the Rajput (q.v.); common in the Benares region.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=fX2zMfWqIzMC&printsec=frontcover&source=gb_mobile_entity&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&hl=en&gl=IN&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Bhumihar&f=false Bayly, C. A. (1987). Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. page no.207]</ref> <br />
<br />
== Audrey Truschke ==<br />
Historian Audrey Truschke, who specializes in South Asian History, in her book Truschke, A. (2025). India: 5,000 Years of History on the Subcontinent. United States: Princeton University Press, terms the Bhumihars as Brahmins.<br />
<br />
She writes in the page no. 320 of her book<blockquote>In the early to mid-eighteenth century, new rulers emerged in Benares. Regionally, it became part of Awadh, whose Nawabs broke away from the Mughals in the 1720s. Locally, the '''Brahmin Bhumihar''' family seized control in the 1730s, becoming Benares zamindars.</blockquote><ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books/about/India.html?id=Ri82EQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=kp_read_button&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&gboemv=1&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Truschke, A. (2025). India: 5,000 Years of History on the Subcontinent. United States: Princeton University Press. page no. 320]</ref><br />
<br />
== William Dalrymple ==<br />
He describes the Bhumihars in his book Dalrymple, W. (2004). The Age of Kali: Indian Travels & Encounters. India: Penguin Books Limited. <br />
<br />
He describes the Bhumihars as Brahmins who had converted to Buddhism during the reign of Emperor Ashoka and were denied readmittance into the Priestly class once Hindu revival happened. They were still high-caste but lost place from the top of the caste pyramid.<blockquote>Bhumihar: Brahmins who had converted to Buddhism at the time of the Emperor Ashoka, around 300 BC, and who had then been denied readmittance to the priestly caste when Indian Buddhism was wiped out by an aggressive Hindu revival a thousand years later, Bhumihars were still high-caste, but they had never quite regained the top place in the caste pyramid they had lost 250 years before the Romans first arrived in Britain.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=NcwDAQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gb_mobile_entity&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&hl=en&gl=IN&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Bhumihar&f=false Dalrymple, W. (2004). The Age of Kali: Indian Travels & Encounters. India: Penguin Books Limited.]</ref></blockquote></div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=%E2%80%8BHistorian_Views_and_Research_on_Bhumihars&diff=994Historian Views and Research on Bhumihars2026-08-28T12:01:17Z<p>Jalewar: </p>
<hr />
<div>The following historians and researchers have offered their opinions on B<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=NcwDAQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gb_mobile_entity&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&hl=en&gl=IN&redir_esc=y#v=snippet&q=bhumihar%20&f=false Dalrymple, W. (2004). The Age of Kali: Indian Travels & Encounters. India: Penguin Books Limited.]</ref>humihars.<br />
<br />
== C.A. Bayly ==<br />
British Historian C.A. Bayly in page no. 207 of his book, "Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire" Part 2, Volume 1, published by the "Cambridge University Press" United Kingdom, describes the Bhumihars. <br />
[[File:C. A. Bayly book.jpg|thumb|preview of the book. ]]<br />
He writes, Bhumihar Brahmin - 'landholding' brahmin caste which had adopted the agrarian life style of the Rajput (q.v.); common in the Benares region.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=fX2zMfWqIzMC&printsec=frontcover&source=gb_mobile_entity&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&hl=en&gl=IN&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Bhumihar&f=false Bayly, C. A. (1987). Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. page no.207]</ref> <br />
<br />
== Audrey Truschke ==<br />
Historian Audrey Truschke, who specializes in South Asian History, in her book Truschke, A. (2025). India: 5,000 Years of History on the Subcontinent. United States: Princeton University Press, terms the Bhumihars as Brahmins.<br />
<br />
She writes in the page no. 320 of her book<blockquote>In the early to mid-eighteenth century, new rulers emerged in Benares. Regionally, it became part of Awadh, whose Nawabs broke away from the Mughals in the 1720s. Locally, the '''Brahmin Bhumihar''' family seized control in the 1730s, becoming Benares zamindars.</blockquote><ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books/about/India.html?id=Ri82EQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=kp_read_button&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&gboemv=1&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Truschke, A. (2025). India: 5,000 Years of History on the Subcontinent. United States: Princeton University Press. page no. 320]</ref><br />
<br />
== William Dalrymple ==<br />
He describes the Bhumihars in his book Dalrymple, W. (2004). The Age of Kali: Indian Travels & Encounters. India: Penguin Books Limited. <br />
<br />
He describes the Bhumihars as Brahmins who had converted to Buddhism during the reign of Emperor Ashoka and were denied readmittance into the Priestly class once Hindu revival happened. They were still high-caste but lost place from the top of the caste pyramid.<blockquote>Bhumihar: Brahmins who had converted to Buddhism at the time of the Emperor Ashoka, around 300 BC, and who had then been denied readmittance to the priestly caste when Indian Buddhism was wiped out by an aggressive Hindu revival a thousand years later, Bhumihars were still high-caste, but they had never quite regained the top place in the caste pyramid they had lost 250 years before the Romans first arrived in Britain.</blockquote></div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=%E2%80%8BHistorian_Views_and_Research_on_Bhumihars&diff=993Historian Views and Research on Bhumihars2026-08-28T11:29:45Z<p>Jalewar: /* Audrey Truschke */</p>
<hr />
<div>The following historians and researchers have offered their opinions on Bhumihars.<br />
<br />
== C.A. Bayly ==<br />
British Historian C.A. Bayly in page no. 207 of his book, "Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire" Part 2, Volume 1, published by the "Cambridge University Press" United Kingdom, describes the Bhumihars. <br />
[[File:C. A. Bayly book.jpg|thumb|preview of the book. ]]<br />
He writes, Bhumihar Brahmin - 'landholding' brahmin caste which had adopted the agrarian life style of the Rajput (q.v.); common in the Benares region.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=fX2zMfWqIzMC&printsec=frontcover&source=gb_mobile_entity&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&hl=en&gl=IN&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Bhumihar&f=false Bayly, C. A. (1987). Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. page no.207]</ref> <br />
<br />
== Audrey Truschke ==<br />
Historian Audrey Truschke, who specializes in South Asian History, in her book Truschke, A. (2025). India: 5,000 Years of History on the Subcontinent. United States: Princeton University Press, terms the Bhumihars as Brahmins.<br />
<br />
She writes in the page no. 320 of her book<blockquote>In the early to mid-eighteenth century, new rulers emerged in Benares. Regionally, it became part of Awadh, whose Nawabs broke away from the Mughals in the 1720s. Locally, the '''Brahmin Bhumihar''' family seized control in the 1730s, becoming Benares zamindars.</blockquote><ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books/about/India.html?id=Ri82EQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=kp_read_button&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&gboemv=1&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Truschke, A. (2025). India: 5,000 Years of History on the Subcontinent. United States: Princeton University Press. page no. 320]</ref></div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=%E2%80%8BHistorian_Views_and_Research_on_Bhumihars&diff=992Historian Views and Research on Bhumihars2026-08-28T11:26:52Z<p>Jalewar: /* Audrey Truschke */</p>
<hr />
<div>The following historians and researchers have offered their opinions on Bhumihars.<br />
<br />
== C.A. Bayly ==<br />
British Historian C.A. Bayly in page no. 207 of his book, "Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire" Part 2, Volume 1, published by the "Cambridge University Press" United Kingdom, describes the Bhumihars. <br />
[[File:C. A. Bayly book.jpg|thumb|preview of the book. ]]<br />
He writes, Bhumihar Brahmin - 'landholding' brahmin caste which had adopted the agrarian life style of the Rajput (q.v.); common in the Benares region.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=fX2zMfWqIzMC&printsec=frontcover&source=gb_mobile_entity&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&hl=en&gl=IN&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Bhumihar&f=false Bayly, C. A. (1987). Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. page no.207]</ref> <br />
<br />
== Audrey Truschke ==<br />
Historian Audrey Truschke, who specializes in South Asian History, in her book Truschke, A. (2025). India: 5,000 Years of History on the Subcontinent. United States: Princeton University Press, terms the Bhumihars as Brahmins.<br />
<br />
She writes in the page no. 320 of her book<blockquote>In the early to mid-eighteenth century, new rulers emerged in Bena-res. Regionally, it became part of Awadh, whose Nawabs broke away from the Mughals in the 1720s. Locally, the '''Brahmin Bhumihar''' family seized control in the 1730s, becoming Benares zamindars.</blockquote></div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=%E2%80%8BHistorian_Views_and_Research_on_Bhumihars&diff=991Historian Views and Research on Bhumihars2026-08-28T11:26:23Z<p>Jalewar: </p>
<hr />
<div>The following historians and researchers have offered their opinions on Bhumihars.<br />
<br />
== C.A. Bayly ==<br />
British Historian C.A. Bayly in page no. 207 of his book, "Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire" Part 2, Volume 1, published by the "Cambridge University Press" United Kingdom, describes the Bhumihars. <br />
[[File:C. A. Bayly book.jpg|thumb|preview of the book. ]]<br />
He writes, Bhumihar Brahmin - 'landholding' brahmin caste which had adopted the agrarian life style of the Rajput (q.v.); common in the Benares region.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=fX2zMfWqIzMC&printsec=frontcover&source=gb_mobile_entity&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&hl=en&gl=IN&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Bhumihar&f=false Bayly, C. A. (1987). Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. page no.207]</ref> <br />
<br />
== Audrey Truschke ==<br />
Historian Audrey Truschke, who specializes in South Asian History, in her book Truschke, A. (2025). India: 5,000 Years of History on the Subcontinent. United States: Princeton University Press, terms the Bhumihars as Brahmins.<br />
<br />
She writes in the page no. 320 of her book<blockquote>new sources, and revivalist building projects.<br />
In the early to mid-eighteenth century, new rulers emerged in Bena-res. Regionally, it became part of Awadh, whose Nawabs broke away from the Mughals in the 1720s. Locally, the '''Brahmin Bhumihar''' family seized control in the 1730s, becoming Benares zamindars.</blockquote></div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=%E2%80%8BHistorian_Views_and_Research_on_Bhumihars&diff=990Historian Views and Research on Bhumihars2026-08-28T11:23:46Z<p>Jalewar: </p>
<hr />
<div>The following historians and researchers have offered their opinions on Bhumihars.<br />
<br />
== C.A. Bayly ==<br />
British Historian C.A. Bayly in page no. 207 of his book, "Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire" Part 2, Volume 1, published by the "Cambridge University Press" United Kingdom, describes the Bhumihars. <br />
[[File:C. A. Bayly book.jpg|thumb|preview of the book. ]]<br />
He writes, Bhumihar Brahmin - 'landholding' brahmin caste which had adopted the agrarian life style of the Rajput (q.v.); common in the Benares region.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=fX2zMfWqIzMC&printsec=frontcover&source=gb_mobile_entity&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&hl=en&gl=IN&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Bhumihar&f=false Bayly, C. A. (1987). Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. page no.207]</ref> <br />
<br />
== Audrey Truschke ==<br />
Historian Audrey Truschke, who specializes in South Asian History, in her book Truschke, A. (2025). India: 5,000 Years of History on the Subcontinent. United States: Princeton University Press, terms the Bhumihars as Brahmins.<br />
<br />
She writes in the page no. 320 of her book<blockquote></blockquote></div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=%E2%80%8BHistorian_Views_and_Research_on_Bhumihars&diff=989Historian Views and Research on Bhumihars2026-08-28T10:33:45Z<p>Jalewar: </p>
<hr />
<div>The following historians and researchers have offered their opinions on Bhumihars.<br />
<br />
== C.A. Bayly ==<br />
British Historian C.A. Bayly in page no. 207 of his book, "Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire" Part 2, Volume 1, published by the "Cambridge University Press" United Kingdom, describes the Bhumihars. <br />
[[File:C. A. Bayly book.jpg|thumb|preview of the book. ]]<br />
He writes, Bhumihar Brahmin - 'landholding' brahmin caste which had adopted the agrarian life style of the Rajput (q.v.); common in the Benares region.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=fX2zMfWqIzMC&printsec=frontcover&source=gb_mobile_entity&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&hl=en&gl=IN&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Bhumihar&f=false Bayly, C. A. (1987). Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. page no.207]</ref></div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=File:C._A._Bayly_book.jpg&diff=988File:C. A. Bayly book.jpg2026-08-28T10:29:03Z<p>Jalewar: </p>
<hr />
<div>Bhumihar Brahmin described by C. A. Bayly</div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=%E2%80%8BHistorian_Views_and_Research_on_Bhumihars&diff=987Historian Views and Research on Bhumihars2026-08-28T10:27:48Z<p>Jalewar: </p>
<hr />
<div>The following historians and researchers have offered their opinions on Bhumihars.<br />
<br />
== C.A. Bayly ==<br />
British Historian C.A. Bayly in page no. 207 of his book, "Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire" Part 2, Volume 1, published by the "Cambridge University Press" United Kingdom, describes the Bhumihars. <br />
<br />
He writes, Bhumihar Brahmin - 'landholding' brahmin caste which had adopted the agrarian life style of the Rajput (q.v.); common in the Benares region.</div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=%E2%80%8BHistorian_Views_and_Research_on_Bhumihars&diff=986Historian Views and Research on Bhumihars2026-08-28T10:24:22Z<p>Jalewar: </p>
<hr />
<div>The following historians and researchers have offered their opinions on Bhumihars.<br />
<br />
== C.A. Bayly ==<br />
British Historian C.A. Bayly in page no. 207 of his book, "Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire" Part 2, Volume 1, published by the "Cambridge University Press" United Kingdom, describes the Bhumihars. <br />
<br />
He writes, Bhumihar Brahmin -</div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=%E2%80%8BHistorian_Views_and_Research_on_Bhumihars&diff=985Historian Views and Research on Bhumihars2026-08-28T10:18:32Z<p>Jalewar: </p>
<hr />
<div>The following historians and researchers have offered their opinions on Bhumihars.<br />
<br />
== CA Bayly ==</div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=%E2%80%8BHistorian_Views_and_Research_on_Bhumihars&diff=984Historian Views and Research on Bhumihars2026-08-28T10:09:08Z<p>Jalewar: Protected "Historian Views and Research on Bhumihars" ([Edit=Allow only administrators] (indefinite) [Move=Allow only administrators] (indefinite))</p>
<hr />
<div>The following historians and researchers have offered their opinions on Bhumihars.</div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=%E2%80%8BHistorian_Views_and_Research_on_Bhumihars&diff=983Historian Views and Research on Bhumihars2026-08-28T10:08:07Z<p>Jalewar: Created a page</p>
<hr />
<div>The following historians and researchers have offered their opinions on Bhumihars.</div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=Bhumihar_Genetics&diff=913Bhumihar Genetics2026-08-07T14:44:21Z<p>Jalewar: punctuation fixes</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Bhumihar Steppe ancestry ranges from 27% to 37%, SAHG/AASI from 28% to 36%,''' with the remainder being IVC Farmer ancestry. On average, a Bhumihar individual carries 31.32% Steppe_MLBA, 33.31% AASI (Ancient Ancestral South Indian) and 35.36% IVC-related / Indus Periphery farmer ancestry. <br />
<br />
Across multiple genetic studies published between 2019 and 2024, Bhumihars consistently show higher Steppe-related ancestry and lower Indigenous (AHG/Onge-related proxy) ancestry than Brahmins and Rajputs. '''The landmark 2019 Harvard University research on South Asian caste genetics/DNA'''<ref>[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 The formation of human populations]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 in South and Central Asia]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Vagheesh M. Narasimhan1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 *†, Nick Patterson2,3*†, Priya Moorjani4,5‡, Nadin Rohland1,2‡,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Rebecca Bernardos1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Swapan Mallick1,2,6‡, Iosif Lazaridis1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Nathan Nakatsuka1,7]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Iñigo Olalde1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Mark Lipson1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Alexander M. Kim1,8, Luca M. Olivieri9]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Alfredo Coppa10]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Massimo Vidale9,11, James Mallory12, Vyacheslav Moiseyev13, Egor Kitov14,15,16]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Janet Monge17, Nicole Adamski1,6, Neel Alex18, Nasreen Broomandkhoshbacht1,6§,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Francesca Candilio19,20, Kimberly Callan1,6, Olivia Cheronet19,21,22]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Brendan J. Culleton23, Matthew Ferry1,6, Daniel Fernandes19,21,22,24, Suzanne Freilich22]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Beatriz Gamarra19,21,25||¶, Daniel Gaudio19,21, Mateja Hajdinjak26, Éadaoin Harney1,6,27]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Thomas K. Harper28, Denise Keating19, Ann Marie Lawson1,6, Matthew Mah1,2,6]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Kirsten Mandl22, Megan Michel1,6#**, Mario Novak19,29, Jonas Oppenheimer1,6††,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Niraj Rai30,31, Kendra Sirak1,19,32, Viviane Slon26, Kristin Stewardson1,6]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Fatma Zalzala1,6, Zhao Zhang1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Gaziz Akhatov15, Anatoly N. Bagashev33]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Alessandra Bagnera9]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Bauryzhan Baitanayev15, Julio Bendezu-Sarmiento34]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Arman A. Bissembaev15,35, Gian Luca Bonora36, Temirlan T. Chargynov37]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Tatiana Chikisheva38, Petr K. Dashkovskiy39, Anatoly Derevianko38, Miroslav Dobeš]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 40]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Katerina Douka41,42, Nadezhda Dubova14, Meiram N. Duisengali35, Dmitry Enshin33]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Andrey Epimakhov43,44, Alexey V. Fribus45, Dorian Fuller46,47, Alexander Goryachev33]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Andrey Gromov13, Sergey P. Grushin48, Bryan Hanks49, Margaret Judd49]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Erlan Kazizov15, Aleksander Khokhlov50, Aleksander P. Krygin51, Elena Kupriyanova52]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Pavel Kuznetsov50, Donata Luiselli53, Farhod Maksudov54, Aslan M. Mamedov55]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Talgat B. Mamirov15, Christopher Meiklejohn56, Deborah C. Merrett57]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Roberto Micheli9,58, Oleg Mochalov50, Samariddin Mustafokulov54,59, Ayushi Nayak41]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Davide Pettener60, Richard Potts61, Dmitry Razhev33, Marina Rykun62]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Stefania Sarno60, Tatyana M. Savenkova63, Kulyan Sikhymbaeva64]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Sergey M. Slepchenko33, Oroz A. Soltobaev37, Nadezhda Stepanova38]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Svetlana Svyatko13,65, Kubatbek Tabaldiev66, Maria Teschler-Nicola22,67]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Alexey A. Tishkin68, Vitaly V. Tkachev69, Sergey Vasilyev14,70, Petr Velemínský71]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Dmitriy Voyakin15,72, Antonina Yermolayeva15, Muhammad Zahir41,73]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Valery S. Zubkov74, Alisa Zubova13, Vasant S. Shinde75, Carles Lalueza-Fox76]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Matthias Meyer26, David Anthony77, Nicole Boivin41‡, Kumarasamy Thangaraj30‡,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Douglas J. Kennett23,28,78‡, Michael Frachetti79,80†,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Ron Pinhasi19,22†, David Reich1,2,6,81†]</ref>''', which is to date the largest and most renowned study on the genetics of Indian castes''', reported disproportionately high Steppe ancestry in Bhumihars compared to Brahmins, Rajputs, Gangetic castes, and the non-Jat/Ror/Pashtun castes of North-West India and Pakistan. <br />
<br />
The 2024 study ''<u>Distinct Positions of Genetic and Oral Histories: Perspectives from India</u>''<ref>[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666247724000447 Biddanda A, Bandyopadhyay E, de la Fuente Castro C, Witonsky D, Urban Aragon JA, Pasupuleti N, Moots HM, Fonseca R, Freilich S, Stanisavic J, Willis T, Menon A, Mustak MS, Kodira CD, Naren AP, Sikdar M, Rai N, Raghavan M. Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India. HGG Adv. 2024 Jul 18;5(3):100305. doi: 10.1016/j.xhgg.2024.100305. Epub 2024 May 8. PMID: 38720459; PMCID: PMC11153255.]</ref> likewise identified the sampled Bihari '''Bhumihars as having the highest Steppe ancestry among the sampled Brahmin groups, placing them above the Brahmin Tiwari, Saryuparin and West Bengal Brahmin groups, as well as the Rajputs'''. Independent studies published in BMC Genomics (2020)<ref>[https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12863-020-00919-2 Das, R., Ivanisenko, V.A., Anashkina, A.A. ''et al.'' The story of the lost twins: decoding the genetic identities of the Kumhar and Kurcha populations from the Indian subcontinent. ''BMC Genet'' '''21''' (Suppl 1), 117 (2020).]</ref>, Human Genetics (2021)<ref>[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12959898/ Das, Ranajit & Ivanisenko, Vladimir & Anashkina, Anastasia & Upadhyai, Priyanka. (2020). The story of the lost twins: decoding the genetic identities of the Kumhar and Kurcha populations from the Indian subcontinent. BMC Genetics. 21. 24-28. 10.1186/s12863-020-00919-2.] </ref>, bioRxiv (2022)<ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/362173947_Genetic_affinities_and_sub-structuring_in_Coorg_population_of_Southern_India Mukhopadhyay, Anirban & Kumar, Lomous & Sran, Kiran & Thangaraj, Kumarasamy & Thelma, B. (2022). Genetic affinities and sub-structuring in Coorg population of Southern India. 10.1101/2022.07.20.500704.] </ref> and Genome Biology and Evolution (2023)<ref>[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38079532/ Kumar L, Chowdhari A, Sequeira JJ, Mustak MS, Banerjee M, Thangaraj K. Genetic Affinities and Adaptation of the South-West Coast Populations of India. Genome Biol Evol. 2023 Dec 1;15(12):evad225. doi: 10.1093/gbe/evad225. PMID: 38079532; PMCID: PMC10745260.]</ref> '''similarly reported comparatively high Steppe-related and European Hunter-Gatherer ancestry in Bhumihars''' than in several other sampled caste groups, including Brahmins, Rajputs, Kambojs, Dogras, Gujjars, Nairs, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, and Bunts.<br />
<br />
== Key concepts of Indian population genetics ==<br />
All mainstream South Asians are a mixture of three major ancestral components: Steppe_MLBA, IVC (Indus Valley Civilization-related) and AASI/SAHG (South Asians Hunter Gatherers also called Ancient Ancestral South Indian). Researchers use Onge or AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer) as proxies for AASI. The IVC-related ancestry itself is an earlier mixture of Iranian farmer-related ancestry and SAHG/AASI, after which Steppe_MLBA ancestry mixed with IVC-related populations to form the ancestry found in many present-day South Asians.<br />
<br />
These three ancestral components are found in almost all mainstream South Asians, but in different proportions. Every caste and community has its own typical range of these ancestry components, although these ranges often overlap with those of other castes and communities.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! # !! Component !! Mainly Associated With<br />
|-<br />
| 1 || '''Steppe_MLBA''' || Late Bronze Age steppe pastoralist populations (Sintashta/Andronovo-like), Indo-Iranian/Indo-European–linked movements into South Asia in the 2nd millennium BCE, and a substantial part of the ancestry of many Indo-Aryan–speaking and some higher-caste groups. These people are credited to have likely brought the Indo European language family into South Asia.<br />
|-<br />
| 2 || '''IVC''' (Indus-related / Indus Periphery) || People of the Indus Valley Civilization and surrounding regions, a mixture of Iran-related early farmer ancestry and South Asian hunter-gatherers, and the largest single ancestral layer feeding into both ANI and ASI-rich populations across South Asia.<br />
|-<br />
| 3 || '''AASI''' (Ancient Ancestral South Indian) || The local, native South Asian hunter gatherer ancestry that predates farming and steppe migrations and contributes substantially to many present day South Asian groups.<br />
|-<br />
| 4 || '''AHG''' (Andamanese Hunter Gatherers) || A proxy source based on Andamanese genomes representing AASI like (native South Asian hunter gatherer) ancestry in qpAdm models, used to approximate the indigenous Indian component in studies such as those by Lomous Kumar.<br />
|} <br />
<br />
== Bhumihar Genetics according to the Harvard University & David Reich ==<br />
Harvard University’s professors and 114+ genetic scientists from across the globe conducted the most extensive and detailed genetic research on Indian castes & tribes, headed by David Reich, world’s leading geneticist and the director of David Reich Lab at the Harvard University.<br />
<br />
This research, “[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aat7487 The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia]”, highlighted several points about Bhumihars as follows: <br />
<br />
=== ''(A) “Steppe ancestry in modern South Asians is primarily from males and disproportionately high in Brahmin and Bhumihar groups"'' ===<br />
[[File:Image.png|center|thumb|624x624px]]<br />
<br />
=== ''(B) “Groups that traditionally view themselves as being of priestly status (Brahmin, Pandit, and Bhumihar) tend to have a significantly higher ratio of Central_Steppe_MLBA to Indus_Periphery_Cline ancestry than other groups”'' ===<br />
[[File:Harvard1.jpg|center|thumb|624x624px]]<br />
<br />
=== (C) Strongest signals of Steppe ancestry in the Gangetic plains were found amongst the Bihari Bhumihars ===<br />
[[File:IMG 20260806 083826.jpg|center|thumb|372x372px]]<br />
<br />
=== (D) According to David Reich's genetic research, Bihari Bhumihars were found to have higher Steppe ancestry and lower AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer)-proxy Indigenous ancestry than Gangetic Plains Brahmins and Rajputs. ===<br />
In the DNA research on Indian castes by Dr. David Reich, Harvard University and world's most renowned genetic scientist, '''Bihari Bhumihars''' '''were found to have higher''' '''Steppe ancestry''' than '''Gangetic Plains Brahmins''' and '''Rajputs'''. They were also found to have lower '''Indigenous ancestry''', for which '''AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer)''' was used as a proxy, compared with Gangetic Brahmins and Rajputs. <br />
<br />
'''How to access this''' - The exact ancestry percentages are provided in David Reich's widely cited research paper on Indian populations, '''[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aat7487 "The Formation of Human Populations in South and Central Asia."]''' Specifically, they are listed in the supplementary material at the end of the paper, in the spreadsheet named '''"File (aat7487_tables1-5.xlsx),"''' under '''Table S5'''.<br />
<br />
{| style="margin:auto; text-align:center;"<br />
| [[File:G7.png|350px|thumb|'''Model 1''' Bihari Bhumihars are estimated to have '''28.3%''' Central Steppe_MLBA-related ancestry and '''21.3%''' AHG-related ancestry, compared with Brahmin_UP (26.4% Steppe, 24.8% AHG), Brahmin_Tiwari (27.0% Steppe, 23.6% AHG), Brahmin_Haryana (24.0% Steppe, 18.8% AHG), and Rajputs (23.5% Steppe, 25% AHG), respectively.]]<br />
| [[File:G4.png|350px|thumb|'''Model 2''' Bihari Bhumihars are estimated to have '''26.3%''' Central Steppe_MLBA-related ancestry and '''26.4%''' AHG-related ancestry, compared with Brahmin_UP (25.0% Steppe, 29.1% AHG), Brahmin_Tiwari (25.2% Steppe, 28.2% AHG), Brahmin_Haryana (23.1% Steppe, 25.2% AHG), and Rajputs (21.9% Steppe, 29.5% AHG), respectively.]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Bhumihars show the highest Steppe ancestry among Brahmin groups in the 2024 genetics/DNA research ==<br />
<br />
The 2024 research Distinct Positions of Genetic and Oral Histories: Perspectives from India applied qpAdm modeling to find the proportions of Steppe and Onge-related (AASI or the indigenous Indian component) ancestry and '''Bhumihars of Bihar came out to have the highest Steppe ancestry (29.0%) among the Brahmin groups, more than Brahmin Tiwari (27.9%), Saryuparin Brahmins (26.1% Steppe), and West Bengal Brahmins (22.3% Steppe)'''. Their estimated Steppe ancestry was also higher than that of the sampled Rajputs (20.8% Steppe) and Khatris (26.9% Steppe). <br />
<br />
Conversely, Bhumihars displayed the lowest Onge-related ancestry (20.7%) among the Brahmin groups in the dataset, lower than Brahmin Tiwari (23.4%), Saryupari Brahmins (22.8%), West Bengal Brahmins (30.6%), Rajputs (21.9%) but the Khatris (11.6%) have even lower Onge related ancestry than Bhumihars. '''Khatris showed nearly half the amount of Onge-related ancestry compared to Gangetic Brahmins and the Bihari Bhumihars'''.<br />
<br />
'''How to access this''' and view the spreadsheet from the research paper: <br />
<br />
Link: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.06.498959v3 '''Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India, 2024'''] <br />
<br />
Step 1) Go to the link of the research paper, scroll down and navigate to the "Supplementary Materials" section and there you'll find the "Supplementary Tables" in the form of an Excel Sheet / Spreadsheet. <br />
<br />
Step 2) Inside the spreadsheet, go to the table number 'S6' to find the spreadsheet of the ancestry '''qpAdm runs from the research posted below'''. [[File:IMG 20260806 103606 481.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.06.498959v3 Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India, 2024] |501x501px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 3 ==<br />
According to a 2020 research, Bhumihars show higher Steppe ancestry compared to other caste groups such as Kshatriyas, Kurmis, Tharus, Srivastavas, Yadavs, Nais, Thakurs, and Brahmins sampled in the research.<br />
[[File:Bmc.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12863-020-00919-2 The story of the lost twins: decoding the genetic identities of the Kumhar and Kurcha populations from the Indian subcontinent - BMC Genomics, 2020]|530x530px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 4 ==<br />
According to a 2021 research, Bihari Bhumihars have higher Eastern European Hunter Gatherer, Western Steppe and Central Steppe than other groups like Kambojs, Dogras, Haviks and Brahmins. '''This research showed results of 3 different models.'''<br />
[[File:Hgenome-1.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
[[File:Hgenome-2.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
[[File:Hgenome-3.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 5 ==<br />
According to a 2022, research Bhumihars have higher Steppe_MLBA ancestry than other groups like Kambojs, Gujjars, Nairs, Brahmins, Dogras, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, Bunts etc sampled in the research.<br />
[[File:Rxiv.jpg|center|thumb|Source: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.20.500704v1 Genetic affinities and sub-structuring in Coorg population of Southern India - 2022]|547x547px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 6 ==<br />
According to a 2023 research, Bihari Bhumihars were found to be having higher Steppe_MLBA ancestry than other groups like Kambojs, Gujjars, Nairs, Brahmins, Dogras, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, Bunts etc sampled in yet another research.<br />
[[File:Genome.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38079532/ Genetic Affinities and Adaptation of the South-West Coast Populations of India - Genome Biology and Evolution, 2023]|540x540px]]<br />
<br />
== Summary ==<br />
Genetic studies published between 2019 to 2024 suggest that the Bhumihars carry a slightly higher proportion of Bronze Age Steppe ancestry compared to other upper castes of the Indo-Gangetic plains and beyond, except for Jats, Rors and Pashtuns. <br />
<br />
Researchers suggest this pattern stems from early historical admixture, as occurred during the formation of all Indian castes, which was then preserved through centuries of endogamy.<br />
<br />
== References ==</div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=Bhumihar_Phenotype&diff=899Bhumihar Phenotype2026-08-06T16:53:06Z<p>Jalewar: </p>
<hr />
<div>According to the research, titled "[https://share.google/uRCLYOpvs7jZ5vn4H Skin Pigmentation Diversity in Central East Indian Populations and its Correlation with Mitochondrial Haplogroups]", which measured the Melanin Index (MI) of populations in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, '''Bhumihars were found to be the lightest-skinned caste in''' '''Bihar and Central-to-Eastern Uttar Pradesh'''. In other words, their MI (Melanin Index) is the lowest amongst all the castes studied in these regions.<br />
<br />
''The Melanin Index (MI) measures skin complexion and pigmentation, <u>a</u>'' <u>lower ''MI corresponds to a lighter skin tone, while a higher MI indicates the presence of more melanin and, therefore, a darker skin tone.''</u><br />
<br />
To date, two research papers have been published on the phenotype or MI of castes found in the Gangetic Plains.<br />
<br />
'''The table below, taken from the research''', presents the average MI, sample size, and caste category for various groups from the Gangetic Plains. The sample size for most of the castes in this study is sufficiently large to draw a broad yet reasonable conclusion.<br />
[[File:Pheno1.jpg|left|thumb|Source: [https://share.google/uRCLYOpvs7jZ5vn4H Skin Pigmentation Diversity in Central East Indian Populations and its Correlation with Mitochondrial Haplogroups]]]</div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=Bhumihar_Phenotype&diff=898Bhumihar Phenotype2026-08-06T16:51:58Z<p>Jalewar: </p>
<hr />
<div>According to the research, titled "[https://share.google/uRCLYOpvs7jZ5vn4H Skin Pigmentation Diversity in Central East Indian Populations and its Correlation with Mitochondrial Haplogroups]", which measured the Melanin Index (MI) of populations in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, '''Bhumihars were found to be the lightest-skinned caste in''' '''Bihar and Central-to-Eastern Uttar Pradesh'''. In other words, their MI (Melanin Index) is the lowest amongst all the castes studied in these regions.<br />
<br />
''The Melanin Index (MI) measures skin complexion and pigmentation, a <u>lower MI corresponds to a lighter skin tone, while a higher MI indicates the presence of more melanin and, therefore, a darker skin tone.</u>''<br />
<br />
To date, two research papers have been published on the phenotype or MI of castes found in the Gangetic Plains.<br />
<br />
'''The table below, taken from the research''', presents the average MI, sample size, and caste category for various groups from the Gangetic Plains. The sample size for most of the castes in this study is sufficiently large to draw a broad yet reasonable conclusion.<br />
[[File:Pheno1.jpg|left|thumb|Source: [https://share.google/uRCLYOpvs7jZ5vn4H Skin Pigmentation Diversity in Central East Indian Populations and its Correlation with Mitochondrial Haplogroups]]]</div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=Bhumihar_Phenotype&diff=897Bhumihar Phenotype2026-08-06T16:50:56Z<p>Jalewar: Proofreading and minor punctuation corrections</p>
<hr />
<div>According to the research, titled "[https://share.google/uRCLYOpvs7jZ5vn4H Skin Pigmentation Diversity in Central East Indian Populations and its Correlation with Mitochondrial Haplogroups]", which measured the Melanin Index (MI) of populations in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, '''Bhumihars were found to be the lightest-skinned caste in''' '''Bihar and Central-to-Eastern Uttar Pradesh'''. In other words, their MI (Melanin Index) is the lowest amongst all the castes studied in these regions.<br />
<br />
''The Melanin Index (MI) measures skin complexion and pigmentation, a lower MI corresponds to a lighter skin tone, while a higher MI indicates the presence of more melanin and, therefore, a darker skin tone.''<br />
<br />
To date, two research papers have been published on the phenotype or MI of castes found in the Gangetic Plains.<br />
<br />
'''The table below, taken from the research''', presents the average MI, sample size, and caste category for various groups from the Gangetic Plains. The sample size for most of the castes in this study is sufficiently large to draw a broad yet reasonable conclusion.<br />
[[File:Pheno1.jpg|left|thumb|Source: [https://share.google/uRCLYOpvs7jZ5vn4H Skin Pigmentation Diversity in Central East Indian Populations and its Correlation with Mitochondrial Haplogroups]]]</div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=File:Bhumihar_Genetic_thumbnail.png&diff=896File:Bhumihar Genetic thumbnail.png2026-08-06T16:27:54Z<p>Jalewar: </p>
<hr />
<div>Thumbnail for Bhumihar genetic related pages</div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=Bhumihar_Genetics&diff=895Bhumihar Genetics2026-08-06T15:05:52Z<p>Jalewar: citation</p>
<hr />
<div>On average, Bhumihar ancestry is derived 31.32% from Steppe_MLBA, 33.31% from AASI (Ancient Ancestral South Indian) and the remaining 35.36% from IVC-related / Indus Periphery farmers. <br />
<br />
Across multiple genetic studies published between 2019 and 2024, Bhumihars consistently show higher Steppe-related ancestry and lower Indigenous (AHG/Onge-related proxy) ancestry than Brahmins and Rajputs. '''The landmark 2019 Harvard University research on South Asian caste genetics/DNA'''<ref>[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 The formation of human populations]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 in South and Central Asia]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Vagheesh M. Narasimhan1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 *†, Nick Patterson2,3*†, Priya Moorjani4,5‡, Nadin Rohland1,2‡,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Rebecca Bernardos1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Swapan Mallick1,2,6‡, Iosif Lazaridis1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Nathan Nakatsuka1,7]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Iñigo Olalde1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Mark Lipson1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Alexander M. Kim1,8, Luca M. Olivieri9]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Alfredo Coppa10]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Massimo Vidale9,11, James Mallory12, Vyacheslav Moiseyev13, Egor Kitov14,15,16]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Janet Monge17, Nicole Adamski1,6, Neel Alex18, Nasreen Broomandkhoshbacht1,6§,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Francesca Candilio19,20, Kimberly Callan1,6, Olivia Cheronet19,21,22]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Brendan J. Culleton23, Matthew Ferry1,6, Daniel Fernandes19,21,22,24, Suzanne Freilich22]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Beatriz Gamarra19,21,25||¶, Daniel Gaudio19,21, Mateja Hajdinjak26, Éadaoin Harney1,6,27]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Thomas K. Harper28, Denise Keating19, Ann Marie Lawson1,6, Matthew Mah1,2,6]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Kirsten Mandl22, Megan Michel1,6#**, Mario Novak19,29, Jonas Oppenheimer1,6††,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Niraj Rai30,31, Kendra Sirak1,19,32, Viviane Slon26, Kristin Stewardson1,6]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Fatma Zalzala1,6, Zhao Zhang1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Gaziz Akhatov15, Anatoly N. Bagashev33]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Alessandra Bagnera9]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Bauryzhan Baitanayev15, Julio Bendezu-Sarmiento34]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Arman A. Bissembaev15,35, Gian Luca Bonora36, Temirlan T. Chargynov37]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Tatiana Chikisheva38, Petr K. Dashkovskiy39, Anatoly Derevianko38, Miroslav Dobeš]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 40]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Katerina Douka41,42, Nadezhda Dubova14, Meiram N. Duisengali35, Dmitry Enshin33]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Andrey Epimakhov43,44, Alexey V. Fribus45, Dorian Fuller46,47, Alexander Goryachev33]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Andrey Gromov13, Sergey P. Grushin48, Bryan Hanks49, Margaret Judd49]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Erlan Kazizov15, Aleksander Khokhlov50, Aleksander P. Krygin51, Elena Kupriyanova52]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Pavel Kuznetsov50, Donata Luiselli53, Farhod Maksudov54, Aslan M. Mamedov55]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Talgat B. Mamirov15, Christopher Meiklejohn56, Deborah C. Merrett57]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Roberto Micheli9,58, Oleg Mochalov50, Samariddin Mustafokulov54,59, Ayushi Nayak41]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Davide Pettener60, Richard Potts61, Dmitry Razhev33, Marina Rykun62]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Stefania Sarno60, Tatyana M. Savenkova63, Kulyan Sikhymbaeva64]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Sergey M. Slepchenko33, Oroz A. Soltobaev37, Nadezhda Stepanova38]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Svetlana Svyatko13,65, Kubatbek Tabaldiev66, Maria Teschler-Nicola22,67]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Alexey A. Tishkin68, Vitaly V. Tkachev69, Sergey Vasilyev14,70, Petr Velemínský71]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Dmitriy Voyakin15,72, Antonina Yermolayeva15, Muhammad Zahir41,73]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Valery S. Zubkov74, Alisa Zubova13, Vasant S. Shinde75, Carles Lalueza-Fox76]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Matthias Meyer26, David Anthony77, Nicole Boivin41‡, Kumarasamy Thangaraj30‡,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Douglas J. Kennett23,28,78‡, Michael Frachetti79,80†,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Ron Pinhasi19,22†, David Reich1,2,6,81†]</ref>''', which is to date the largest and most renowned study on the genetics of Indian castes''', reported disproportionately high Steppe ancestry in Bhumihars compared to Brahmins, Rajputs, Gangetic castes, and the non-Jat/Ror/Pashtun castes of North-West India and Pakistan. <br />
<br />
The 2024 study ''<u>Distinct Positions of Genetic and Oral Histories: Perspectives from India</u>''<ref>[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666247724000447 Biddanda A, Bandyopadhyay E, de la Fuente Castro C, Witonsky D, Urban Aragon JA, Pasupuleti N, Moots HM, Fonseca R, Freilich S, Stanisavic J, Willis T, Menon A, Mustak MS, Kodira CD, Naren AP, Sikdar M, Rai N, Raghavan M. Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India. HGG Adv. 2024 Jul 18;5(3):100305. doi: 10.1016/j.xhgg.2024.100305. Epub 2024 May 8. PMID: 38720459; PMCID: PMC11153255.]</ref> likewise identified the sampled Bihari '''Bhumihars as having the highest Steppe ancestry among the sampled Brahmin groups, placing them above the Brahmin Tiwari, Saryuparin and West Bengal Brahmin groups, as well as the Rajputs'''. Independent studies published in BMC Genomics (2020)<ref>[https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12863-020-00919-2 Das, R., Ivanisenko, V.A., Anashkina, A.A. ''et al.'' The story of the lost twins: decoding the genetic identities of the Kumhar and Kurcha populations from the Indian subcontinent. ''BMC Genet'' '''21''' (Suppl 1), 117 (2020).]</ref>, Human Genetics (2021)<ref>[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12959898/ Das, Ranajit & Ivanisenko, Vladimir & Anashkina, Anastasia & Upadhyai, Priyanka. (2020). The story of the lost twins: decoding the genetic identities of the Kumhar and Kurcha populations from the Indian subcontinent. BMC Genetics. 21. 24-28. 10.1186/s12863-020-00919-2.] </ref>, bioRxiv (2022)<ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/362173947_Genetic_affinities_and_sub-structuring_in_Coorg_population_of_Southern_India Mukhopadhyay, Anirban & Kumar, Lomous & Sran, Kiran & Thangaraj, Kumarasamy & Thelma, B. (2022). Genetic affinities and sub-structuring in Coorg population of Southern India. 10.1101/2022.07.20.500704.] </ref> and Genome Biology and Evolution (2023)<ref>[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38079532/ Kumar L, Chowdhari A, Sequeira JJ, Mustak MS, Banerjee M, Thangaraj K. Genetic Affinities and Adaptation of the South-West Coast Populations of India. Genome Biol Evol. 2023 Dec 1;15(12):evad225. doi: 10.1093/gbe/evad225. PMID: 38079532; PMCID: PMC10745260.]</ref> '''similarly reported comparatively high Steppe-related and European Hunter-Gatherer ancestry in Bhumihars''' than in several other sampled caste groups, including Brahmins, Rajputs, Kambojs, Dogras, Gujjars, Nairs, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, and Bunts.<br />
<br />
== Key concepts of Indian population genetics ==<br />
All mainstream South Asians are a mixture of three major ancestral components: Steppe_MLBA, IVC (Indus Valley Civilization-related) and AASI/SAHG (South Asians Hunter Gatherers also called Ancient Ancestral South Indian). Researchers use Onge or AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer) as proxies for AASI. The IVC-related ancestry itself is an earlier mixture of Iranian farmer-related ancestry and SAHG/AASI, after which Steppe_MLBA ancestry mixed with IVC-related populations to form the ancestry found in many present-day South Asians.<br />
<br />
These three ancestral components are found in almost all mainstream South Asians, but in different proportions. Every caste and community has its own typical range of these ancestry components, although these ranges often overlap with those of other castes and communities.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! # !! Component !! Mainly Associated With<br />
|-<br />
| 1 || '''Steppe_MLBA''' || Late Bronze Age steppe pastoralist populations (Sintashta/Andronovo-like), Indo-Iranian/Indo-European–linked movements into South Asia in the 2nd millennium BCE, and a substantial part of the ancestry of many Indo-Aryan–speaking and some higher-caste groups. These people are credited to have likely brought the Indo European language family into South Asia.<br />
|-<br />
| 2 || '''IVC''' (Indus-related / Indus Periphery) || People of the Indus Valley Civilization and surrounding regions, a mixture of Iran-related early farmer ancestry and South Asian hunter-gatherers, and the largest single ancestral layer feeding into both ANI and ASI-rich populations across South Asia.<br />
|-<br />
| 3 || '''AASI''' (Ancient Ancestral South Indian) || The local, native South Asian hunter gatherer ancestry that predates farming and steppe migrations and contributes substantially to many present day South Asian groups.<br />
|-<br />
| 4 || '''AHG''' (Andamanese Hunter Gatherers) || A proxy source based on Andamanese genomes representing AASI like (native South Asian hunter gatherer) ancestry in qpAdm models, used to approximate the indigenous Indian component in studies such as those by Lomous Kumar.<br />
|} <br />
<br />
== Bhumihar Genetics according to the Harvard University & David Reich ==<br />
Harvard University’s professors and 114+ genetic scientists from across the globe conducted the most extensive and detailed genetic research on Indian castes & tribes, headed by David Reich, world’s leading geneticist and the director of David Reich Lab at the Harvard University.<br />
<br />
This research, “[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aat7487 The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia]”, highlighted several points about Bhumihars as follows: <br />
<br />
=== ''(A) “Steppe ancestry in modern South Asians is primarily from males and disproportionately high in Brahmin and Bhumihar groups"'' ===<br />
[[File:Image.png|center|thumb|624x624px]]<br />
<br />
=== ''(B) “Groups that traditionally view themselves as being of priestly status (Brahmin, Pandit, and Bhumihar) tend to have a significantly higher ratio of Central_Steppe_MLBA to Indus_Periphery_Cline ancestry than other groups”'' ===<br />
[[File:Harvard1.jpg|center|thumb|624x624px]]<br />
<br />
=== (C) Strongest signals of Steppe ancestry in the Gangetic plains were found amongst the Bihari Bhumihars ===<br />
[[File:IMG 20260806 083826.jpg|center|thumb|372x372px]]<br />
<br />
=== (D) According to David Reich's genetic research, Bihari Bhumihars were found to have higher Steppe ancestry and lower AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer)-proxy Indigenous ancestry than Gangetic Plains Brahmins and Rajputs. ===<br />
In the DNA research on Indian castes by Dr. David Reich, Harvard University and world's most renowned genetic scientist, '''Bihari Bhumihars''' '''were found to have higher''' '''Steppe ancestry''' than '''Gangetic Plains Brahmins''' and '''Rajputs'''. They were also found to have lower '''Indigenous ancestry''', for which '''AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer)''' was used as a proxy, compared with Gangetic Brahmins and Rajputs. <br />
<br />
'''How to access this''' - The exact ancestry percentages are provided in David Reich's widely cited research paper on Indian populations, '''[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aat7487 "The Formation of Human Populations in South and Central Asia."]''' Specifically, they are listed in the supplementary material at the end of the paper, in the spreadsheet named '''"File (aat7487_tables1-5.xlsx),"''' under '''Table S5'''.<br />
<br />
{| style="margin:auto; text-align:center;"<br />
| [[File:G7.png|350px|thumb|'''Model 1''' Bihari Bhumihars are estimated to have '''28.3%''' Central Steppe_MLBA-related ancestry and '''21.3%''' AHG-related ancestry, compared with Brahmin_UP (26.4% Steppe, 24.8% AHG), Brahmin_Tiwari (27.0% Steppe, 23.6% AHG), Brahmin_Haryana (24.0% Steppe, 18.8% AHG), and Rajputs (23.5% Steppe, 25% AHG), respectively.]]<br />
| [[File:G4.png|350px|thumb|'''Model 2''' Bihari Bhumihars are estimated to have '''26.3%''' Central Steppe_MLBA-related ancestry and '''26.4%''' AHG-related ancestry, compared with Brahmin_UP (25.0% Steppe, 29.1% AHG), Brahmin_Tiwari (25.2% Steppe, 28.2% AHG), Brahmin_Haryana (23.1% Steppe, 25.2% AHG), and Rajputs (21.9% Steppe, 29.5% AHG), respectively.]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Bhumihars show the highest Steppe ancestry among Brahmin groups in the 2024 genetics/DNA research ==<br />
<br />
The 2024 research Distinct Positions of Genetic and Oral Histories: Perspectives from India applied qpAdm modeling to find the proportions of Steppe and Onge-related (AASI or the indigenous Indian component) ancestry and '''Bhumihars of Bihar came out to have the highest Steppe ancestry (29.0%) among the Brahmin groups, more than Brahmin Tiwari (27.9%), Saryuparin Brahmins (26.1% Steppe), and West Bengal Brahmins (22.3% Steppe)'''. Their estimated Steppe ancestry was also higher than that of the sampled Rajputs (20.8% Steppe) and Khatris (26.9% Steppe). <br />
<br />
Conversely, Bhumihars displayed the lowest Onge-related ancestry (20.7%) among the Brahmin groups in the dataset, lower than Brahmin Tiwari (23.4%), Saryupari Brahmins (22.8%), West Bengal Brahmins (30.6%), Rajputs (21.9%) but the Khatris (11.6%) have even lower Onge related ancestry than Bhumihars. '''Khatris showed nearly half the amount of Onge-related ancestry compared to Gangetic Brahmins and the Bihari Bhumihars'''.<br />
<br />
'''How to access this''' and view the spreadsheet from the research paper: <br />
<br />
Link: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.06.498959v3 '''Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India, 2024'''] <br />
<br />
Step 1) Go to the link of the research paper, scroll down and navigate to the "Supplementary Materials" section and there you'll find the "Supplementary Tables" in the form of an Excel Sheet / Spreadsheet. <br />
<br />
Step 2) Inside the spreadsheet, go to the table number 'S6' to find the spreadsheet of the ancestry '''qpAdm runs from the research posted below'''. [[File:IMG 20260806 103606 481.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.06.498959v3 Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India, 2024] |501x501px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 3 ==<br />
According to a 2020 research, Bhumihars show higher Steppe ancestry compared to other caste groups such as Kshatriyas, Kurmis, Tharus, Srivastavas, Yadavs, Nais, Thakurs, and Brahmins sampled in the research.<br />
[[File:Bmc.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12863-020-00919-2 The story of the lost twins: decoding the genetic identities of the Kumhar and Kurcha populations from the Indian subcontinent - BMC Genomics, 2020]|530x530px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 4 ==<br />
According to a 2021 research, Bihari Bhumihars have higher Eastern European Hunter Gatherer, Western Steppe and Central Steppe than other groups like Kambojs, Dogras, Haviks and Brahmins. '''This research showed results of 3 different models.'''<br />
[[File:Hgenome-1.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
[[File:Hgenome-2.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
[[File:Hgenome-3.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 5 ==<br />
According to a 2022, research Bhumihars have higher Steppe_MLBA ancestry than other groups like Kambojs, Gujjars, Nairs, Brahmins, Dogras, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, Bunts etc sampled in the research.<br />
[[File:Rxiv.jpg|center|thumb|Source: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.20.500704v1 Genetic affinities and sub-structuring in Coorg population of Southern India - 2022]|547x547px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 6 ==<br />
According to a 2023 research, Bihari Bhumihars were found to be having higher Steppe_MLBA ancestry than other groups like Kambojs, Gujjars, Nairs, Brahmins, Dogras, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, Bunts etc sampled in yet another research.<br />
[[File:Genome.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38079532/ Genetic Affinities and Adaptation of the South-West Coast Populations of India - Genome Biology and Evolution, 2023]|540x540px]]<br />
<br />
== Summary ==<br />
Genetic studies published between 2019 to 2024 suggest that the Bhumihars carry a slightly higher proportion of Bronze Age Steppe ancestry compared to other upper castes of the Indo-Gangetic plains and beyond, except for Jats, Rors and Pashtuns. <br />
<br />
Researchers suggest this pattern stems from early historical admixture, as occurred during the formation of all Indian castes, which was then preserved through centuries of endogamy.<br />
<br />
== References ==</div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=Bhumihar_Genetics&diff=894Bhumihar Genetics2026-08-06T15:00:47Z<p>Jalewar: citation</p>
<hr />
<div>On average, Bhumihar ancestry is derived 31.32% from Steppe_MLBA, 33.31% from AASI (Ancient Ancestral South Indian) and the remaining 35.36% from IVC-related / Indus Periphery farmers. <br />
<br />
Across multiple genetic studies published between 2019 and 2024, Bhumihars consistently show higher Steppe-related ancestry and lower Indigenous (AHG/Onge-related proxy) ancestry than Brahmins and Rajputs. '''The landmark 2019 Harvard University research on South Asian caste genetics/DNA'''<ref>[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 The formation of human populations]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 in South and Central Asia]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Vagheesh M. Narasimhan1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 *†, Nick Patterson2,3*†, Priya Moorjani4,5‡, Nadin Rohland1,2‡,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Rebecca Bernardos1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Swapan Mallick1,2,6‡, Iosif Lazaridis1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Nathan Nakatsuka1,7]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Iñigo Olalde1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Mark Lipson1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Alexander M. Kim1,8, Luca M. Olivieri9]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Alfredo Coppa10]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Massimo Vidale9,11, James Mallory12, Vyacheslav Moiseyev13, Egor Kitov14,15,16]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Janet Monge17, Nicole Adamski1,6, Neel Alex18, Nasreen Broomandkhoshbacht1,6§,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Francesca Candilio19,20, Kimberly Callan1,6, Olivia Cheronet19,21,22]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Brendan J. Culleton23, Matthew Ferry1,6, Daniel Fernandes19,21,22,24, Suzanne Freilich22]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Beatriz Gamarra19,21,25||¶, Daniel Gaudio19,21, Mateja Hajdinjak26, Éadaoin Harney1,6,27]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Thomas K. Harper28, Denise Keating19, Ann Marie Lawson1,6, Matthew Mah1,2,6]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Kirsten Mandl22, Megan Michel1,6#**, Mario Novak19,29, Jonas Oppenheimer1,6††,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Niraj Rai30,31, Kendra Sirak1,19,32, Viviane Slon26, Kristin Stewardson1,6]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Fatma Zalzala1,6, Zhao Zhang1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Gaziz Akhatov15, Anatoly N. Bagashev33]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Alessandra Bagnera9]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Bauryzhan Baitanayev15, Julio Bendezu-Sarmiento34]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Arman A. Bissembaev15,35, Gian Luca Bonora36, Temirlan T. Chargynov37]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Tatiana Chikisheva38, Petr K. Dashkovskiy39, Anatoly Derevianko38, Miroslav Dobeš]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 40]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Katerina Douka41,42, Nadezhda Dubova14, Meiram N. Duisengali35, Dmitry Enshin33]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Andrey Epimakhov43,44, Alexey V. Fribus45, Dorian Fuller46,47, Alexander Goryachev33]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Andrey Gromov13, Sergey P. Grushin48, Bryan Hanks49, Margaret Judd49]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Erlan Kazizov15, Aleksander Khokhlov50, Aleksander P. Krygin51, Elena Kupriyanova52]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Pavel Kuznetsov50, Donata Luiselli53, Farhod Maksudov54, Aslan M. Mamedov55]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Talgat B. Mamirov15, Christopher Meiklejohn56, Deborah C. Merrett57]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Roberto Micheli9,58, Oleg Mochalov50, Samariddin Mustafokulov54,59, Ayushi Nayak41]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Davide Pettener60, Richard Potts61, Dmitry Razhev33, Marina Rykun62]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Stefania Sarno60, Tatyana M. Savenkova63, Kulyan Sikhymbaeva64]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Sergey M. Slepchenko33, Oroz A. Soltobaev37, Nadezhda Stepanova38]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Svetlana Svyatko13,65, Kubatbek Tabaldiev66, Maria Teschler-Nicola22,67]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Alexey A. Tishkin68, Vitaly V. Tkachev69, Sergey Vasilyev14,70, Petr Velemínský71]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Dmitriy Voyakin15,72, Antonina Yermolayeva15, Muhammad Zahir41,73]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Valery S. Zubkov74, Alisa Zubova13, Vasant S. Shinde75, Carles Lalueza-Fox76]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Matthias Meyer26, David Anthony77, Nicole Boivin41‡, Kumarasamy Thangaraj30‡,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Douglas J. Kennett23,28,78‡, Michael Frachetti79,80†,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Ron Pinhasi19,22†, David Reich1,2,6,81†]</ref>''', which is to date the largest and most renowned study on the genetics of Indian castes''', reported disproportionately high Steppe ancestry in Bhumihars compared to Brahmins, Rajputs, Gangetic castes, and the non-Jat/Ror/Pashtun castes of North-West India and Pakistan. <br />
<br />
The 2024 study ''<u>Distinct Positions of Genetic and Oral Histories: Perspectives from India</u>''<ref>[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666247724000447 Biddanda A, Bandyopadhyay E, de la Fuente Castro C, Witonsky D, Urban Aragon JA, Pasupuleti N, Moots HM, Fonseca R, Freilich S, Stanisavic J, Willis T, Menon A, Mustak MS, Kodira CD, Naren AP, Sikdar M, Rai N, Raghavan M. Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India. HGG Adv. 2024 Jul 18;5(3):100305. doi: 10.1016/j.xhgg.2024.100305. Epub 2024 May 8. PMID: 38720459; PMCID: PMC11153255.]</ref> likewise identified the sampled Bihari '''Bhumihars as having the highest Steppe ancestry among the sampled Brahmin groups, placing them above the Brahmin Tiwari, Saryuparin and West Bengal Brahmin groups, as well as the Rajputs'''. Independent studies published in BMC Genomics (2020)<ref>[https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12863-020-00919-2 Das, R., Ivanisenko, V.A., Anashkina, A.A. ''et al.'' The story of the lost twins: decoding the genetic identities of the Kumhar and Kurcha populations from the Indian subcontinent. ''BMC Genet'' '''21''' (Suppl 1), 117 (2020).]</ref>, Human Genetics (2021)<ref>[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12959898/ Das, Ranajit & Ivanisenko, Vladimir & Anashkina, Anastasia & Upadhyai, Priyanka. (2020). The story of the lost twins: decoding the genetic identities of the Kumhar and Kurcha populations from the Indian subcontinent. BMC Genetics. 21. 24-28. 10.1186/s12863-020-00919-2.] </ref>, bioRxiv (2022) and Genome Biology and Evolution (2023) '''similarly reported comparatively high Steppe-related and European Hunter-Gatherer ancestry in Bhumihars''' than in several other sampled caste groups, including Brahmins, Rajputs, Kambojs, Dogras, Gujjars, Nairs, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, and Bunts.<br />
<br />
== Key concepts of Indian population genetics ==<br />
All mainstream South Asians are a mixture of three major ancestral components: Steppe_MLBA, IVC (Indus Valley Civilization-related) and AASI/SAHG (South Asians Hunter Gatherers also called Ancient Ancestral South Indian). Researchers use Onge or AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer) as proxies for AASI. The IVC-related ancestry itself is an earlier mixture of Iranian farmer-related ancestry and SAHG/AASI, after which Steppe_MLBA ancestry mixed with IVC-related populations to form the ancestry found in many present-day South Asians.<br />
<br />
These three ancestral components are found in almost all mainstream South Asians, but in different proportions. Every caste and community has its own typical range of these ancestry components, although these ranges often overlap with those of other castes and communities.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! # !! Component !! Mainly Associated With<br />
|-<br />
| 1 || '''Steppe_MLBA''' || Late Bronze Age steppe pastoralist populations (Sintashta/Andronovo-like), Indo-Iranian/Indo-European–linked movements into South Asia in the 2nd millennium BCE, and a substantial part of the ancestry of many Indo-Aryan–speaking and some higher-caste groups. These people are credited to have likely brought the Indo European language family into South Asia.<br />
|-<br />
| 2 || '''IVC''' (Indus-related / Indus Periphery) || People of the Indus Valley Civilization and surrounding regions, a mixture of Iran-related early farmer ancestry and South Asian hunter-gatherers, and the largest single ancestral layer feeding into both ANI and ASI-rich populations across South Asia.<br />
|-<br />
| 3 || '''AASI''' (Ancient Ancestral South Indian) || The local, native South Asian hunter gatherer ancestry that predates farming and steppe migrations and contributes substantially to many present day South Asian groups.<br />
|-<br />
| 4 || '''AHG''' (Andamanese Hunter Gatherers) || A proxy source based on Andamanese genomes representing AASI like (native South Asian hunter gatherer) ancestry in qpAdm models, used to approximate the indigenous Indian component in studies such as those by Lomous Kumar.<br />
|} <br />
<br />
== Bhumihar Genetics according to the Harvard University & David Reich ==<br />
Harvard University’s professors and 114+ genetic scientists from across the globe conducted the most extensive and detailed genetic research on Indian castes & tribes, headed by David Reich, world’s leading geneticist and the director of David Reich Lab at the Harvard University.<br />
<br />
This research, “[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aat7487 The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia]”, highlighted several points about Bhumihars as follows: <br />
<br />
=== ''(A) “Steppe ancestry in modern South Asians is primarily from males and disproportionately high in Brahmin and Bhumihar groups"'' ===<br />
[[File:Image.png|center|thumb|624x624px]]<br />
<br />
=== ''(B) “Groups that traditionally view themselves as being of priestly status (Brahmin, Pandit, and Bhumihar) tend to have a significantly higher ratio of Central_Steppe_MLBA to Indus_Periphery_Cline ancestry than other groups”'' ===<br />
[[File:Harvard1.jpg|center|thumb|624x624px]]<br />
<br />
=== (C) Strongest signals of Steppe ancestry in the Gangetic plains were found amongst the Bihari Bhumihars ===<br />
[[File:IMG 20260806 083826.jpg|center|thumb|372x372px]]<br />
<br />
=== (D) According to David Reich's genetic research, Bihari Bhumihars were found to have higher Steppe ancestry and lower AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer)-proxy Indigenous ancestry than Gangetic Plains Brahmins and Rajputs. ===<br />
In the DNA research on Indian castes by Dr. David Reich, Harvard University and world's most renowned genetic scientist, '''Bihari Bhumihars''' '''were found to have higher''' '''Steppe ancestry''' than '''Gangetic Plains Brahmins''' and '''Rajputs'''. They were also found to have lower '''Indigenous ancestry''', for which '''AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer)''' was used as a proxy, compared with Gangetic Brahmins and Rajputs. <br />
<br />
'''How to access this''' - The exact ancestry percentages are provided in David Reich's widely cited research paper on Indian populations, '''[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aat7487 "The Formation of Human Populations in South and Central Asia."]''' Specifically, they are listed in the supplementary material at the end of the paper, in the spreadsheet named '''"File (aat7487_tables1-5.xlsx),"''' under '''Table S5'''.<br />
<br />
{| style="margin:auto; text-align:center;"<br />
| [[File:G7.png|350px|thumb|'''Model 1''' Bihari Bhumihars are estimated to have '''28.3%''' Central Steppe_MLBA-related ancestry and '''21.3%''' AHG-related ancestry, compared with Brahmin_UP (26.4% Steppe, 24.8% AHG), Brahmin_Tiwari (27.0% Steppe, 23.6% AHG), Brahmin_Haryana (24.0% Steppe, 18.8% AHG), and Rajputs (23.5% Steppe, 25% AHG), respectively.]]<br />
| [[File:G4.png|350px|thumb|'''Model 2''' Bihari Bhumihars are estimated to have '''26.3%''' Central Steppe_MLBA-related ancestry and '''26.4%''' AHG-related ancestry, compared with Brahmin_UP (25.0% Steppe, 29.1% AHG), Brahmin_Tiwari (25.2% Steppe, 28.2% AHG), Brahmin_Haryana (23.1% Steppe, 25.2% AHG), and Rajputs (21.9% Steppe, 29.5% AHG), respectively.]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Bhumihars show the highest Steppe ancestry among Brahmin groups in the 2024 genetics/DNA research ==<br />
<br />
The 2024 research Distinct Positions of Genetic and Oral Histories: Perspectives from India applied qpAdm modeling to find the proportions of Steppe and Onge-related (AASI or the indigenous Indian component) ancestry and '''Bhumihars of Bihar came out to have the highest Steppe ancestry (29.0%) among the Brahmin groups, more than Brahmin Tiwari (27.9%), Saryuparin Brahmins (26.1% Steppe), and West Bengal Brahmins (22.3% Steppe)'''. Their estimated Steppe ancestry was also higher than that of the sampled Rajputs (20.8% Steppe) and Khatris (26.9% Steppe). <br />
<br />
Conversely, Bhumihars displayed the lowest Onge-related ancestry (20.7%) among the Brahmin groups in the dataset, lower than Brahmin Tiwari (23.4%), Saryupari Brahmins (22.8%), West Bengal Brahmins (30.6%), Rajputs (21.9%) but the Khatris (11.6%) have even lower Onge related ancestry than Bhumihars. '''Khatris showed nearly half the amount of Onge-related ancestry compared to Gangetic Brahmins and the Bihari Bhumihars'''.<br />
<br />
'''How to access this''' and view the spreadsheet from the research paper: <br />
<br />
Link: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.06.498959v3 '''Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India, 2024'''] <br />
<br />
Step 1) Go to the link of the research paper, scroll down and navigate to the "Supplementary Materials" section and there you'll find the "Supplementary Tables" in the form of an Excel Sheet / Spreadsheet. <br />
<br />
Step 2) Inside the spreadsheet, go to the table number 'S6' to find the spreadsheet of the ancestry '''qpAdm runs from the research posted below'''. [[File:IMG 20260806 103606 481.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.06.498959v3 Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India, 2024] |501x501px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 3 ==<br />
According to a 2020 research, Bhumihars show higher Steppe ancestry compared to other caste groups such as Kshatriyas, Kurmis, Tharus, Srivastavas, Yadavs, Nais, Thakurs, and Brahmins sampled in the research.<br />
[[File:Bmc.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12863-020-00919-2 The story of the lost twins: decoding the genetic identities of the Kumhar and Kurcha populations from the Indian subcontinent - BMC Genomics, 2020]|530x530px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 4 ==<br />
According to a 2021 research, Bihari Bhumihars have higher Eastern European Hunter Gatherer, Western Steppe and Central Steppe than other groups like Kambojs, Dogras, Haviks and Brahmins. '''This research showed results of 3 different models.'''<br />
[[File:Hgenome-1.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
[[File:Hgenome-2.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
[[File:Hgenome-3.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 5 ==<br />
According to a 2022, research Bhumihars have higher Steppe_MLBA ancestry than other groups like Kambojs, Gujjars, Nairs, Brahmins, Dogras, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, Bunts etc sampled in the research.<br />
[[File:Rxiv.jpg|center|thumb|Source: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.20.500704v1 Genetic affinities and sub-structuring in Coorg population of Southern India - 2022]|547x547px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 6 ==<br />
According to a 2023 research, Bihari Bhumihars were found to be having higher Steppe_MLBA ancestry than other groups like Kambojs, Gujjars, Nairs, Brahmins, Dogras, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, Bunts etc sampled in yet another research.<br />
[[File:Genome.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38079532/ Genetic Affinities and Adaptation of the South-West Coast Populations of India - Genome Biology and Evolution, 2023]|540x540px]]<br />
<br />
== Summary ==<br />
Genetic studies published between 2019 to 2024 suggest that the Bhumihars carry a slightly higher proportion of Bronze Age Steppe ancestry compared to other upper castes of the Indo-Gangetic plains and beyond, except for Jats, Rors and Pashtuns. <br />
<br />
Researchers suggest this pattern stems from early historical admixture, as occurred during the formation of all Indian castes, which was then preserved through centuries of endogamy.<br />
<br />
== References ==</div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=Bhumihar_Genetics&diff=893Bhumihar Genetics2026-08-06T14:48:12Z<p>Jalewar: citation</p>
<hr />
<div>On average, Bhumihar ancestry is derived 31.32% from Steppe_MLBA, 33.31% from AASI (Ancient Ancestral South Indian) and the remaining 35.36% from IVC-related / Indus Periphery farmers. <br />
<br />
Across multiple genetic studies published between 2019 and 2024, Bhumihars consistently show higher Steppe-related ancestry and lower Indigenous (AHG/Onge-related proxy) ancestry than Brahmins and Rajputs. '''The landmark 2019 Harvard University research on South Asian caste genetics/DNA'''<ref>[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 The formation of human populations]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 in South and Central Asia]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Vagheesh M. Narasimhan1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 *†, Nick Patterson2,3*†, Priya Moorjani4,5‡, Nadin Rohland1,2‡,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Rebecca Bernardos1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Swapan Mallick1,2,6‡, Iosif Lazaridis1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Nathan Nakatsuka1,7]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Iñigo Olalde1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Mark Lipson1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Alexander M. Kim1,8, Luca M. Olivieri9]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Alfredo Coppa10]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Massimo Vidale9,11, James Mallory12, Vyacheslav Moiseyev13, Egor Kitov14,15,16]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Janet Monge17, Nicole Adamski1,6, Neel Alex18, Nasreen Broomandkhoshbacht1,6§,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Francesca Candilio19,20, Kimberly Callan1,6, Olivia Cheronet19,21,22]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Brendan J. Culleton23, Matthew Ferry1,6, Daniel Fernandes19,21,22,24, Suzanne Freilich22]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Beatriz Gamarra19,21,25||¶, Daniel Gaudio19,21, Mateja Hajdinjak26, Éadaoin Harney1,6,27]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Thomas K. Harper28, Denise Keating19, Ann Marie Lawson1,6, Matthew Mah1,2,6]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Kirsten Mandl22, Megan Michel1,6#**, Mario Novak19,29, Jonas Oppenheimer1,6††,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Niraj Rai30,31, Kendra Sirak1,19,32, Viviane Slon26, Kristin Stewardson1,6]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Fatma Zalzala1,6, Zhao Zhang1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Gaziz Akhatov15, Anatoly N. Bagashev33]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Alessandra Bagnera9]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Bauryzhan Baitanayev15, Julio Bendezu-Sarmiento34]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Arman A. Bissembaev15,35, Gian Luca Bonora36, Temirlan T. Chargynov37]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Tatiana Chikisheva38, Petr K. Dashkovskiy39, Anatoly Derevianko38, Miroslav Dobeš]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 40]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Katerina Douka41,42, Nadezhda Dubova14, Meiram N. Duisengali35, Dmitry Enshin33]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Andrey Epimakhov43,44, Alexey V. Fribus45, Dorian Fuller46,47, Alexander Goryachev33]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Andrey Gromov13, Sergey P. Grushin48, Bryan Hanks49, Margaret Judd49]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Erlan Kazizov15, Aleksander Khokhlov50, Aleksander P. Krygin51, Elena Kupriyanova52]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Pavel Kuznetsov50, Donata Luiselli53, Farhod Maksudov54, Aslan M. Mamedov55]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Talgat B. Mamirov15, Christopher Meiklejohn56, Deborah C. Merrett57]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Roberto Micheli9,58, Oleg Mochalov50, Samariddin Mustafokulov54,59, Ayushi Nayak41]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Davide Pettener60, Richard Potts61, Dmitry Razhev33, Marina Rykun62]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Stefania Sarno60, Tatyana M. Savenkova63, Kulyan Sikhymbaeva64]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Sergey M. Slepchenko33, Oroz A. Soltobaev37, Nadezhda Stepanova38]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Svetlana Svyatko13,65, Kubatbek Tabaldiev66, Maria Teschler-Nicola22,67]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Alexey A. Tishkin68, Vitaly V. Tkachev69, Sergey Vasilyev14,70, Petr Velemínský71]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Dmitriy Voyakin15,72, Antonina Yermolayeva15, Muhammad Zahir41,73]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Valery S. Zubkov74, Alisa Zubova13, Vasant S. Shinde75, Carles Lalueza-Fox76]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Matthias Meyer26, David Anthony77, Nicole Boivin41‡, Kumarasamy Thangaraj30‡,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Douglas J. Kennett23,28,78‡, Michael Frachetti79,80†,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Ron Pinhasi19,22†, David Reich1,2,6,81†]</ref>''', which is to date the largest and most renowned study on the genetics of Indian castes''', reported disproportionately high Steppe ancestry in Bhumihars compared to Brahmins, Rajputs, Gangetic castes, and the non-Jat/Ror/Pashtun castes of North-West India and Pakistan. <br />
<br />
The 2024 study ''<u>Distinct Positions of Genetic and Oral Histories: Perspectives from India</u>''<ref>[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666247724000447 Biddanda A, Bandyopadhyay E, de la Fuente Castro C, Witonsky D, Urban Aragon JA, Pasupuleti N, Moots HM, Fonseca R, Freilich S, Stanisavic J, Willis T, Menon A, Mustak MS, Kodira CD, Naren AP, Sikdar M, Rai N, Raghavan M. Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India. HGG Adv. 2024 Jul 18;5(3):100305. doi: 10.1016/j.xhgg.2024.100305. Epub 2024 May 8. PMID: 38720459; PMCID: PMC11153255.]</ref> likewise identified the sampled Bihari '''Bhumihars as having the highest Steppe ancestry among the sampled Brahmin groups, placing them above the Brahmin Tiwari, Saryuparin and West Bengal Brahmin groups, as well as the Rajputs'''. Independent studies published in BMC Genomics (2020)<ref>[https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12863-020-00919-2 Das, R., Ivanisenko, V.A., Anashkina, A.A. ''et al.'' The story of the lost twins: decoding the genetic identities of the Kumhar and Kurcha populations from the Indian subcontinent. ''BMC Genet'' '''21''' (Suppl 1), 117 (2020).]</ref>, Human Genetics (2021), bioRxiv (2022) and Genome Biology and Evolution (2023) '''similarly reported comparatively high Steppe-related and European Hunter-Gatherer ancestry in Bhumihars''' than in several other sampled caste groups, including Brahmins, Rajputs, Kambojs, Dogras, Gujjars, Nairs, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, and Bunts.<br />
<br />
== Key concepts of Indian population genetics ==<br />
All mainstream South Asians are a mixture of three major ancestral components: Steppe_MLBA, IVC (Indus Valley Civilization-related) and AASI/SAHG (South Asians Hunter Gatherers also called Ancient Ancestral South Indian). Researchers use Onge or AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer) as proxies for AASI. The IVC-related ancestry itself is an earlier mixture of Iranian farmer-related ancestry and SAHG/AASI, after which Steppe_MLBA ancestry mixed with IVC-related populations to form the ancestry found in many present-day South Asians.<br />
<br />
These three ancestral components are found in almost all mainstream South Asians, but in different proportions. Every caste and community has its own typical range of these ancestry components, although these ranges often overlap with those of other castes and communities.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! # !! Component !! Mainly Associated With<br />
|-<br />
| 1 || '''Steppe_MLBA''' || Late Bronze Age steppe pastoralist populations (Sintashta/Andronovo-like), Indo-Iranian/Indo-European–linked movements into South Asia in the 2nd millennium BCE, and a substantial part of the ancestry of many Indo-Aryan–speaking and some higher-caste groups. These people are credited to have likely brought the Indo European language family into South Asia.<br />
|-<br />
| 2 || '''IVC''' (Indus-related / Indus Periphery) || People of the Indus Valley Civilization and surrounding regions, a mixture of Iran-related early farmer ancestry and South Asian hunter-gatherers, and the largest single ancestral layer feeding into both ANI and ASI-rich populations across South Asia.<br />
|-<br />
| 3 || '''AASI''' (Ancient Ancestral South Indian) || The local, native South Asian hunter gatherer ancestry that predates farming and steppe migrations and contributes substantially to many present day South Asian groups.<br />
|-<br />
| 4 || '''AHG''' (Andamanese Hunter Gatherers) || A proxy source based on Andamanese genomes representing AASI like (native South Asian hunter gatherer) ancestry in qpAdm models, used to approximate the indigenous Indian component in studies such as those by Lomous Kumar.<br />
|} <br />
<br />
== Bhumihar Genetics according to the Harvard University & David Reich ==<br />
Harvard University’s professors and 114+ genetic scientists from across the globe conducted the most extensive and detailed genetic research on Indian castes & tribes, headed by David Reich, world’s leading geneticist and the director of David Reich Lab at the Harvard University.<br />
<br />
This research, “[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aat7487 The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia]”, highlighted several points about Bhumihars as follows: <br />
<br />
=== ''(A) “Steppe ancestry in modern South Asians is primarily from males and disproportionately high in Brahmin and Bhumihar groups"'' ===<br />
[[File:Image.png|center|thumb|624x624px]]<br />
<br />
=== ''(B) “Groups that traditionally view themselves as being of priestly status (Brahmin, Pandit, and Bhumihar) tend to have a significantly higher ratio of Central_Steppe_MLBA to Indus_Periphery_Cline ancestry than other groups”'' ===<br />
[[File:Harvard1.jpg|center|thumb|624x624px]]<br />
<br />
=== (C) Strongest signals of Steppe ancestry in the Gangetic plains were found amongst the Bihari Bhumihars ===<br />
[[File:IMG 20260806 083826.jpg|center|thumb|372x372px]]<br />
<br />
=== (D) According to David Reich's genetic research, Bihari Bhumihars were found to have higher Steppe ancestry and lower AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer)-proxy Indigenous ancestry than Gangetic Plains Brahmins and Rajputs. ===<br />
In the DNA research on Indian castes by Dr. David Reich, Harvard University and world's most renowned genetic scientist, '''Bihari Bhumihars''' '''were found to have higher''' '''Steppe ancestry''' than '''Gangetic Plains Brahmins''' and '''Rajputs'''. They were also found to have lower '''Indigenous ancestry''', for which '''AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer)''' was used as a proxy, compared with Gangetic Brahmins and Rajputs. <br />
<br />
'''How to access this''' - The exact ancestry percentages are provided in David Reich's widely cited research paper on Indian populations, '''[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aat7487 "The Formation of Human Populations in South and Central Asia."]''' Specifically, they are listed in the supplementary material at the end of the paper, in the spreadsheet named '''"File (aat7487_tables1-5.xlsx),"''' under '''Table S5'''.<br />
<br />
{| style="margin:auto; text-align:center;"<br />
| [[File:G7.png|350px|thumb|'''Model 1''' Bihari Bhumihars are estimated to have '''28.3%''' Central Steppe_MLBA-related ancestry and '''21.3%''' AHG-related ancestry, compared with Brahmin_UP (26.4% Steppe, 24.8% AHG), Brahmin_Tiwari (27.0% Steppe, 23.6% AHG), Brahmin_Haryana (24.0% Steppe, 18.8% AHG), and Rajputs (23.5% Steppe, 25% AHG), respectively.]]<br />
| [[File:G4.png|350px|thumb|'''Model 2''' Bihari Bhumihars are estimated to have '''26.3%''' Central Steppe_MLBA-related ancestry and '''26.4%''' AHG-related ancestry, compared with Brahmin_UP (25.0% Steppe, 29.1% AHG), Brahmin_Tiwari (25.2% Steppe, 28.2% AHG), Brahmin_Haryana (23.1% Steppe, 25.2% AHG), and Rajputs (21.9% Steppe, 29.5% AHG), respectively.]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Bhumihars show the highest Steppe ancestry among Brahmin groups in the 2024 genetics/DNA research ==<br />
<br />
The 2024 research Distinct Positions of Genetic and Oral Histories: Perspectives from India applied qpAdm modeling to find the proportions of Steppe and Onge-related (AASI or the indigenous Indian component) ancestry and '''Bhumihars of Bihar came out to have the highest Steppe ancestry (29.0%) among the Brahmin groups, more than Brahmin Tiwari (27.9%), Saryuparin Brahmins (26.1% Steppe), and West Bengal Brahmins (22.3% Steppe)'''. Their estimated Steppe ancestry was also higher than that of the sampled Rajputs (20.8% Steppe) and Khatris (26.9% Steppe). <br />
<br />
Conversely, Bhumihars displayed the lowest Onge-related ancestry (20.7%) among the Brahmin groups in the dataset, lower than Brahmin Tiwari (23.4%), Saryupari Brahmins (22.8%), West Bengal Brahmins (30.6%), Rajputs (21.9%) but the Khatris (11.6%) have even lower Onge related ancestry than Bhumihars. '''Khatris showed nearly half the amount of Onge-related ancestry compared to Gangetic Brahmins and the Bihari Bhumihars'''.<br />
<br />
'''How to access this''' and view the spreadsheet from the research paper: <br />
<br />
Link: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.06.498959v3 '''Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India, 2024'''] <br />
<br />
Step 1) Go to the link of the research paper, scroll down and navigate to the "Supplementary Materials" section and there you'll find the "Supplementary Tables" in the form of an Excel Sheet / Spreadsheet. <br />
<br />
Step 2) Inside the spreadsheet, go to the table number 'S6' to find the spreadsheet of the ancestry '''qpAdm runs from the research posted below'''. [[File:IMG 20260806 103606 481.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.06.498959v3 Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India, 2024] |501x501px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 3 ==<br />
According to a 2020 research, Bhumihars show higher Steppe ancestry compared to other caste groups such as Kshatriyas, Kurmis, Tharus, Srivastavas, Yadavs, Nais, Thakurs, and Brahmins sampled in the research.<br />
[[File:Bmc.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12863-020-00919-2 The story of the lost twins: decoding the genetic identities of the Kumhar and Kurcha populations from the Indian subcontinent - BMC Genomics, 2020]|530x530px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 4 ==<br />
According to a 2021 research, Bihari Bhumihars have higher Eastern European Hunter Gatherer, Western Steppe and Central Steppe than other groups like Kambojs, Dogras, Haviks and Brahmins. '''This research showed results of 3 different models.'''<br />
[[File:Hgenome-1.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
[[File:Hgenome-2.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
[[File:Hgenome-3.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 5 ==<br />
According to a 2022, research Bhumihars have higher Steppe_MLBA ancestry than other groups like Kambojs, Gujjars, Nairs, Brahmins, Dogras, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, Bunts etc sampled in the research.<br />
[[File:Rxiv.jpg|center|thumb|Source: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.20.500704v1 Genetic affinities and sub-structuring in Coorg population of Southern India - 2022]|547x547px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 6 ==<br />
According to a 2023 research, Bihari Bhumihars were found to be having higher Steppe_MLBA ancestry than other groups like Kambojs, Gujjars, Nairs, Brahmins, Dogras, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, Bunts etc sampled in yet another research.<br />
[[File:Genome.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38079532/ Genetic Affinities and Adaptation of the South-West Coast Populations of India - Genome Biology and Evolution, 2023]|540x540px]]<br />
<br />
== Summary ==<br />
Genetic studies published between 2019 to 2024 suggest that the Bhumihars carry a slightly higher proportion of Bronze Age Steppe ancestry compared to other upper castes of the Indo-Gangetic plains and beyond, except for Jats, Rors and Pashtuns. <br />
<br />
Researchers suggest this pattern stems from early historical admixture, as occurred during the formation of all Indian castes, which was then preserved through centuries of endogamy.<br />
<br />
== References ==</div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=Bhumihar_Genetics&diff=892Bhumihar Genetics2026-08-06T14:46:51Z<p>Jalewar: </p>
<hr />
<div>On average, Bhumihar ancestry is derived 31.32% from Steppe_MLBA, 33.31% from AASI (Ancient Ancestral South Indian) and the remaining 35.36% from IVC-related / Indus Periphery farmers. <br />
<br />
Across multiple genetic studies published between 2019 and 2024, Bhumihars consistently show higher Steppe-related ancestry and lower Indigenous (AHG/Onge-related proxy) ancestry than Brahmins and Rajputs. '''The landmark 2019 Harvard University research on South Asian caste genetics/DNA'''<ref>[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 The formation of human populations]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 in South and Central Asia]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Vagheesh M. Narasimhan1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 *†, Nick Patterson2,3*†, Priya Moorjani4,5‡, Nadin Rohland1,2‡,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Rebecca Bernardos1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Swapan Mallick1,2,6‡, Iosif Lazaridis1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Nathan Nakatsuka1,7]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Iñigo Olalde1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Mark Lipson1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Alexander M. Kim1,8, Luca M. Olivieri9]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Alfredo Coppa10]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Massimo Vidale9,11, James Mallory12, Vyacheslav Moiseyev13, Egor Kitov14,15,16]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Janet Monge17, Nicole Adamski1,6, Neel Alex18, Nasreen Broomandkhoshbacht1,6§,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Francesca Candilio19,20, Kimberly Callan1,6, Olivia Cheronet19,21,22]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Brendan J. Culleton23, Matthew Ferry1,6, Daniel Fernandes19,21,22,24, Suzanne Freilich22]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Beatriz Gamarra19,21,25||¶, Daniel Gaudio19,21, Mateja Hajdinjak26, Éadaoin Harney1,6,27]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Thomas K. Harper28, Denise Keating19, Ann Marie Lawson1,6, Matthew Mah1,2,6]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Kirsten Mandl22, Megan Michel1,6#**, Mario Novak19,29, Jonas Oppenheimer1,6††,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Niraj Rai30,31, Kendra Sirak1,19,32, Viviane Slon26, Kristin Stewardson1,6]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Fatma Zalzala1,6, Zhao Zhang1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Gaziz Akhatov15, Anatoly N. Bagashev33]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Alessandra Bagnera9]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Bauryzhan Baitanayev15, Julio Bendezu-Sarmiento34]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Arman A. Bissembaev15,35, Gian Luca Bonora36, Temirlan T. Chargynov37]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Tatiana Chikisheva38, Petr K. Dashkovskiy39, Anatoly Derevianko38, Miroslav Dobeš]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 40]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Katerina Douka41,42, Nadezhda Dubova14, Meiram N. Duisengali35, Dmitry Enshin33]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Andrey Epimakhov43,44, Alexey V. Fribus45, Dorian Fuller46,47, Alexander Goryachev33]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Andrey Gromov13, Sergey P. Grushin48, Bryan Hanks49, Margaret Judd49]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Erlan Kazizov15, Aleksander Khokhlov50, Aleksander P. Krygin51, Elena Kupriyanova52]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Pavel Kuznetsov50, Donata Luiselli53, Farhod Maksudov54, Aslan M. Mamedov55]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Talgat B. Mamirov15, Christopher Meiklejohn56, Deborah C. Merrett57]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Roberto Micheli9,58, Oleg Mochalov50, Samariddin Mustafokulov54,59, Ayushi Nayak41]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Davide Pettener60, Richard Potts61, Dmitry Razhev33, Marina Rykun62]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Stefania Sarno60, Tatyana M. Savenkova63, Kulyan Sikhymbaeva64]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Sergey M. Slepchenko33, Oroz A. Soltobaev37, Nadezhda Stepanova38]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Svetlana Svyatko13,65, Kubatbek Tabaldiev66, Maria Teschler-Nicola22,67]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Alexey A. Tishkin68, Vitaly V. Tkachev69, Sergey Vasilyev14,70, Petr Velemínský71]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Dmitriy Voyakin15,72, Antonina Yermolayeva15, Muhammad Zahir41,73]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Valery S. Zubkov74, Alisa Zubova13, Vasant S. Shinde75, Carles Lalueza-Fox76]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Matthias Meyer26, David Anthony77, Nicole Boivin41‡, Kumarasamy Thangaraj30‡,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Douglas J. Kennett23,28,78‡, Michael Frachetti79,80†,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Ron Pinhasi19,22†, David Reich1,2,6,81†]</ref>''', which is to date the largest and most renowned study on the genetics of Indian castes''', reported disproportionately high Steppe ancestry in Bhumihars compared to Brahmins, Rajputs, Gangetic castes, and the non-Jat/Ror/Pashtun castes of North-West India and Pakistan. <br />
<br />
The 2024 study ''<u>Distinct Positions of Genetic and Oral Histories: Perspectives from India</u>''<ref>[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666247724000447 Biddanda A, Bandyopadhyay E, de la Fuente Castro C, Witonsky D, Urban Aragon JA, Pasupuleti N, Moots HM, Fonseca R, Freilich S, Stanisavic J, Willis T, Menon A, Mustak MS, Kodira CD, Naren AP, Sikdar M, Rai N, Raghavan M. Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India. HGG Adv. 2024 Jul 18;5(3):100305. doi: 10.1016/j.xhgg.2024.100305. Epub 2024 May 8. PMID: 38720459; PMCID: PMC11153255.]</ref> likewise identified the sampled Bihari '''Bhumihars as having the highest Steppe ancestry among the sampled Brahmin groups, placing them above the Brahmin Tiwari, Saryuparin and West Bengal Brahmin groups, as well as the Rajputs'''. Independent studies published in BMC Genomics (2020)<ref>Das, R., Ivanisenko, V.A., Anashkina, A.A. ''et al.'' The story of the lost twins: decoding the genetic identities of the Kumhar and Kurcha populations from the Indian subcontinent. ''BMC Genet'' '''21''' (Suppl 1), 117 (2020).</ref>, Human Genetics (2021), bioRxiv (2022) and Genome Biology and Evolution (2023) '''similarly reported comparatively high Steppe-related and European Hunter-Gatherer ancestry in Bhumihars''' than in several other sampled caste groups, including Brahmins, Rajputs, Kambojs, Dogras, Gujjars, Nairs, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, and Bunts.<br />
<br />
== Key concepts of Indian population genetics ==<br />
All mainstream South Asians are a mixture of three major ancestral components: Steppe_MLBA, IVC (Indus Valley Civilization-related) and AASI/SAHG (South Asians Hunter Gatherers also called Ancient Ancestral South Indian). Researchers use Onge or AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer) as proxies for AASI. The IVC-related ancestry itself is an earlier mixture of Iranian farmer-related ancestry and SAHG/AASI, after which Steppe_MLBA ancestry mixed with IVC-related populations to form the ancestry found in many present-day South Asians.<br />
<br />
These three ancestral components are found in almost all mainstream South Asians, but in different proportions. Every caste and community has its own typical range of these ancestry components, although these ranges often overlap with those of other castes and communities.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! # !! Component !! Mainly Associated With<br />
|-<br />
| 1 || '''Steppe_MLBA''' || Late Bronze Age steppe pastoralist populations (Sintashta/Andronovo-like), Indo-Iranian/Indo-European–linked movements into South Asia in the 2nd millennium BCE, and a substantial part of the ancestry of many Indo-Aryan–speaking and some higher-caste groups. These people are credited to have likely brought the Indo European language family into South Asia.<br />
|-<br />
| 2 || '''IVC''' (Indus-related / Indus Periphery) || People of the Indus Valley Civilization and surrounding regions, a mixture of Iran-related early farmer ancestry and South Asian hunter-gatherers, and the largest single ancestral layer feeding into both ANI and ASI-rich populations across South Asia.<br />
|-<br />
| 3 || '''AASI''' (Ancient Ancestral South Indian) || The local, native South Asian hunter gatherer ancestry that predates farming and steppe migrations and contributes substantially to many present day South Asian groups.<br />
|-<br />
| 4 || '''AHG''' (Andamanese Hunter Gatherers) || A proxy source based on Andamanese genomes representing AASI like (native South Asian hunter gatherer) ancestry in qpAdm models, used to approximate the indigenous Indian component in studies such as those by Lomous Kumar.<br />
|} <br />
<br />
== Bhumihar Genetics according to the Harvard University & David Reich ==<br />
Harvard University’s professors and 114+ genetic scientists from across the globe conducted the most extensive and detailed genetic research on Indian castes & tribes, headed by David Reich, world’s leading geneticist and the director of David Reich Lab at the Harvard University.<br />
<br />
This research, “[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aat7487 The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia]”, highlighted several points about Bhumihars as follows: <br />
<br />
=== ''(A) “Steppe ancestry in modern South Asians is primarily from males and disproportionately high in Brahmin and Bhumihar groups"'' ===<br />
[[File:Image.png|center|thumb|624x624px]]<br />
<br />
=== ''(B) “Groups that traditionally view themselves as being of priestly status (Brahmin, Pandit, and Bhumihar) tend to have a significantly higher ratio of Central_Steppe_MLBA to Indus_Periphery_Cline ancestry than other groups”'' ===<br />
[[File:Harvard1.jpg|center|thumb|624x624px]]<br />
<br />
=== (C) Strongest signals of Steppe ancestry in the Gangetic plains were found amongst the Bihari Bhumihars ===<br />
[[File:IMG 20260806 083826.jpg|center|thumb|372x372px]]<br />
<br />
=== (D) According to David Reich's genetic research, Bihari Bhumihars were found to have higher Steppe ancestry and lower AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer)-proxy Indigenous ancestry than Gangetic Plains Brahmins and Rajputs. ===<br />
In the DNA research on Indian castes by Dr. David Reich, Harvard University and world's most renowned genetic scientist, '''Bihari Bhumihars''' '''were found to have higher''' '''Steppe ancestry''' than '''Gangetic Plains Brahmins''' and '''Rajputs'''. They were also found to have lower '''Indigenous ancestry''', for which '''AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer)''' was used as a proxy, compared with Gangetic Brahmins and Rajputs. <br />
<br />
'''How to access this''' - The exact ancestry percentages are provided in David Reich's widely cited research paper on Indian populations, '''[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aat7487 "The Formation of Human Populations in South and Central Asia."]''' Specifically, they are listed in the supplementary material at the end of the paper, in the spreadsheet named '''"File (aat7487_tables1-5.xlsx),"''' under '''Table S5'''.<br />
<br />
{| style="margin:auto; text-align:center;"<br />
| [[File:G7.png|350px|thumb|'''Model 1''' Bihari Bhumihars are estimated to have '''28.3%''' Central Steppe_MLBA-related ancestry and '''21.3%''' AHG-related ancestry, compared with Brahmin_UP (26.4% Steppe, 24.8% AHG), Brahmin_Tiwari (27.0% Steppe, 23.6% AHG), Brahmin_Haryana (24.0% Steppe, 18.8% AHG), and Rajputs (23.5% Steppe, 25% AHG), respectively.]]<br />
| [[File:G4.png|350px|thumb|'''Model 2''' Bihari Bhumihars are estimated to have '''26.3%''' Central Steppe_MLBA-related ancestry and '''26.4%''' AHG-related ancestry, compared with Brahmin_UP (25.0% Steppe, 29.1% AHG), Brahmin_Tiwari (25.2% Steppe, 28.2% AHG), Brahmin_Haryana (23.1% Steppe, 25.2% AHG), and Rajputs (21.9% Steppe, 29.5% AHG), respectively.]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Bhumihars show the highest Steppe ancestry among Brahmin groups in the 2024 genetics/DNA research ==<br />
<br />
The 2024 research Distinct Positions of Genetic and Oral Histories: Perspectives from India applied qpAdm modeling to find the proportions of Steppe and Onge-related (AASI or the indigenous Indian component) ancestry and '''Bhumihars of Bihar came out to have the highest Steppe ancestry (29.0%) among the Brahmin groups, more than Brahmin Tiwari (27.9%), Saryuparin Brahmins (26.1% Steppe), and West Bengal Brahmins (22.3% Steppe)'''. Their estimated Steppe ancestry was also higher than that of the sampled Rajputs (20.8% Steppe) and Khatris (26.9% Steppe). <br />
<br />
Conversely, Bhumihars displayed the lowest Onge-related ancestry (20.7%) among the Brahmin groups in the dataset, lower than Brahmin Tiwari (23.4%), Saryupari Brahmins (22.8%), West Bengal Brahmins (30.6%), Rajputs (21.9%) but the Khatris (11.6%) have even lower Onge related ancestry than Bhumihars. '''Khatris showed nearly half the amount of Onge-related ancestry compared to Gangetic Brahmins and the Bihari Bhumihars'''.<br />
<br />
'''How to access this''' and view the spreadsheet from the research paper: <br />
<br />
Link: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.06.498959v3 '''Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India, 2024'''] <br />
<br />
Step 1) Go to the link of the research paper, scroll down and navigate to the "Supplementary Materials" section and there you'll find the "Supplementary Tables" in the form of an Excel Sheet / Spreadsheet. <br />
<br />
Step 2) Inside the spreadsheet, go to the table number 'S6' to find the spreadsheet of the ancestry '''qpAdm runs from the research posted below'''. [[File:IMG 20260806 103606 481.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.06.498959v3 Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India, 2024] |501x501px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 3 ==<br />
According to a 2020 research, Bhumihars show higher Steppe ancestry compared to other caste groups such as Kshatriyas, Kurmis, Tharus, Srivastavas, Yadavs, Nais, Thakurs, and Brahmins sampled in the research.<br />
[[File:Bmc.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12863-020-00919-2 The story of the lost twins: decoding the genetic identities of the Kumhar and Kurcha populations from the Indian subcontinent - BMC Genomics, 2020]|530x530px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 4 ==<br />
According to a 2021 research, Bihari Bhumihars have higher Eastern European Hunter Gatherer, Western Steppe and Central Steppe than other groups like Kambojs, Dogras, Haviks and Brahmins. '''This research showed results of 3 different models.'''<br />
[[File:Hgenome-1.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
[[File:Hgenome-2.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
[[File:Hgenome-3.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 5 ==<br />
According to a 2022, research Bhumihars have higher Steppe_MLBA ancestry than other groups like Kambojs, Gujjars, Nairs, Brahmins, Dogras, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, Bunts etc sampled in the research.<br />
[[File:Rxiv.jpg|center|thumb|Source: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.20.500704v1 Genetic affinities and sub-structuring in Coorg population of Southern India - 2022]|547x547px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 6 ==<br />
According to a 2023 research, Bihari Bhumihars were found to be having higher Steppe_MLBA ancestry than other groups like Kambojs, Gujjars, Nairs, Brahmins, Dogras, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, Bunts etc sampled in yet another research.<br />
[[File:Genome.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38079532/ Genetic Affinities and Adaptation of the South-West Coast Populations of India - Genome Biology and Evolution, 2023]|540x540px]]<br />
<br />
== Summary ==<br />
Genetic studies published between 2019 to 2024 suggest that the Bhumihars carry a slightly higher proportion of Bronze Age Steppe ancestry compared to other upper castes of the Indo-Gangetic plains and beyond, except for Jats, Rors and Pashtuns. <br />
<br />
Researchers suggest this pattern stems from early historical admixture, as occurred during the formation of all Indian castes, which was then preserved through centuries of endogamy.<br />
<br />
== References ==</div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=Bhumihar_Genetics&diff=891Bhumihar Genetics2026-08-06T13:31:13Z<p>Jalewar: citation</p>
<hr />
<div>On average, Bhumihar ancestry is derived 31.32% from Steppe_MLBA, 33.31% from AASI (Ancient Ancestral South Indian) and the remaining 35.36% from IVC-related / Indus Periphery farmers. <br />
<br />
Across multiple genetic studies published between 2019 and 2024, Bhumihars consistently show higher Steppe-related ancestry and lower Indigenous (AHG/Onge-related proxy) ancestry than Brahmins and Rajputs. '''The landmark 2019 Harvard University research on South Asian caste genetics/DNA'''<ref>[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 The formation of human populations]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 in South and Central Asia]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Vagheesh M. Narasimhan1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 *†, Nick Patterson2,3*†, Priya Moorjani4,5‡, Nadin Rohland1,2‡,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Rebecca Bernardos1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Swapan Mallick1,2,6‡, Iosif Lazaridis1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Nathan Nakatsuka1,7]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Iñigo Olalde1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Mark Lipson1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Alexander M. Kim1,8, Luca M. Olivieri9]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Alfredo Coppa10]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Massimo Vidale9,11, James Mallory12, Vyacheslav Moiseyev13, Egor Kitov14,15,16]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Janet Monge17, Nicole Adamski1,6, Neel Alex18, Nasreen Broomandkhoshbacht1,6§,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Francesca Candilio19,20, Kimberly Callan1,6, Olivia Cheronet19,21,22]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Brendan J. Culleton23, Matthew Ferry1,6, Daniel Fernandes19,21,22,24, Suzanne Freilich22]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Beatriz Gamarra19,21,25||¶, Daniel Gaudio19,21, Mateja Hajdinjak26, Éadaoin Harney1,6,27]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Thomas K. Harper28, Denise Keating19, Ann Marie Lawson1,6, Matthew Mah1,2,6]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Kirsten Mandl22, Megan Michel1,6#**, Mario Novak19,29, Jonas Oppenheimer1,6††,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Niraj Rai30,31, Kendra Sirak1,19,32, Viviane Slon26, Kristin Stewardson1,6]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Fatma Zalzala1,6, Zhao Zhang1]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Gaziz Akhatov15, Anatoly N. Bagashev33]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Alessandra Bagnera9]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 , Bauryzhan Baitanayev15, Julio Bendezu-Sarmiento34]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Arman A. Bissembaev15,35, Gian Luca Bonora36, Temirlan T. Chargynov37]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Tatiana Chikisheva38, Petr K. Dashkovskiy39, Anatoly Derevianko38, Miroslav Dobeš]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 40]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Katerina Douka41,42, Nadezhda Dubova14, Meiram N. Duisengali35, Dmitry Enshin33]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Andrey Epimakhov43,44, Alexey V. Fribus45, Dorian Fuller46,47, Alexander Goryachev33]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Andrey Gromov13, Sergey P. Grushin48, Bryan Hanks49, Margaret Judd49]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Erlan Kazizov15, Aleksander Khokhlov50, Aleksander P. Krygin51, Elena Kupriyanova52]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Pavel Kuznetsov50, Donata Luiselli53, Farhod Maksudov54, Aslan M. Mamedov55]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Talgat B. Mamirov15, Christopher Meiklejohn56, Deborah C. Merrett57]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Roberto Micheli9,58, Oleg Mochalov50, Samariddin Mustafokulov54,59, Ayushi Nayak41]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Davide Pettener60, Richard Potts61, Dmitry Razhev33, Marina Rykun62]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Stefania Sarno60, Tatyana M. Savenkova63, Kulyan Sikhymbaeva64]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Sergey M. Slepchenko33, Oroz A. Soltobaev37, Nadezhda Stepanova38]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Svetlana Svyatko13,65, Kubatbek Tabaldiev66, Maria Teschler-Nicola22,67]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Alexey A. Tishkin68, Vitaly V. Tkachev69, Sergey Vasilyev14,70, Petr Velemínský71]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Dmitriy Voyakin15,72, Antonina Yermolayeva15, Muhammad Zahir41,73]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Valery S. Zubkov74, Alisa Zubova13, Vasant S. Shinde75, Carles Lalueza-Fox76]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 ,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Matthias Meyer26, David Anthony77, Nicole Boivin41‡, Kumarasamy Thangaraj30‡,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Douglas J. Kennett23,28,78‡, Michael Frachetti79,80†,]<br />
<br />
[https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjZy8LljIyWAxWQSWwGHa5kE2sQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Feaat7487.full_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1fEPgSxgL5_aV8Gxh_Cp0_&opi=89978449 Ron Pinhasi19,22†, David Reich1,2,6,81†]</ref>''', which is to date the largest and most renowned study on the genetics of Indian castes''', reported disproportionately high Steppe ancestry in Bhumihars compared to Brahmins, Rajputs, Gangetic castes, and the non-Jat/Ror/Pashtun castes of North-West India and Pakistan. <br />
<br />
The 2024 study ''<u>Distinct Positions of Genetic and Oral Histories: Perspectives from India</u>''<ref>[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666247724000447 Biddanda A, Bandyopadhyay E, de la Fuente Castro C, Witonsky D, Urban Aragon JA, Pasupuleti N, Moots HM, Fonseca R, Freilich S, Stanisavic J, Willis T, Menon A, Mustak MS, Kodira CD, Naren AP, Sikdar M, Rai N, Raghavan M. Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India. HGG Adv. 2024 Jul 18;5(3):100305. doi: 10.1016/j.xhgg.2024.100305. Epub 2024 May 8. PMID: 38720459; PMCID: PMC11153255.]</ref> likewise identified the sampled Bihari '''Bhumihars as having the highest Steppe ancestry among the sampled Brahmin groups, placing them above the Brahmin Tiwari, Saryuparin and West Bengal Brahmin groups, as well as the Rajputs'''. Independent studies published in BMC Genomics (2020), Human Genetics (2021), bioRxiv (2022) and Genome Biology and Evolution (2023) '''similarly reported comparatively high Steppe-related and European Hunter-Gatherer ancestry in Bhumihars''' than in several other sampled caste groups, including Brahmins, Rajputs, Kambojs, Dogras, Gujjars, Nairs, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, and Bunts.<br />
<br />
== Key concepts of Indian population genetics ==<br />
All mainstream South Asians are a mixture of three major ancestral components: Steppe_MLBA, IVC (Indus Valley Civilization-related) and AASI/SAHG (South Asians Hunter Gatherers also called Ancient Ancestral South Indian). Researchers use Onge or AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer) as proxies for AASI. The IVC-related ancestry itself is an earlier mixture of Iranian farmer-related ancestry and SAHG/AASI, after which Steppe_MLBA ancestry mixed with IVC-related populations to form the ancestry found in many present-day South Asians.<br />
<br />
These three ancestral components are found in almost all mainstream South Asians, but in different proportions. Every caste and community has its own typical range of these ancestry components, although these ranges often overlap with those of other castes and communities.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! # !! Component !! Mainly Associated With<br />
|-<br />
| 1 || '''Steppe_MLBA''' || Late Bronze Age steppe pastoralist populations (Sintashta/Andronovo-like), Indo-Iranian/Indo-European–linked movements into South Asia in the 2nd millennium BCE, and a substantial part of the ancestry of many Indo-Aryan–speaking and some higher-caste groups. These people are credited to have likely brought the Indo European language family into South Asia.<br />
|-<br />
| 2 || '''IVC''' (Indus-related / Indus Periphery) || People of the Indus Valley Civilization and surrounding regions, a mixture of Iran-related early farmer ancestry and South Asian hunter-gatherers, and the largest single ancestral layer feeding into both ANI and ASI-rich populations across South Asia.<br />
|-<br />
| 3 || '''AASI''' (Ancient Ancestral South Indian) || The local, native South Asian hunter gatherer ancestry that predates farming and steppe migrations and contributes substantially to many present day South Asian groups.<br />
|-<br />
| 4 || '''AHG''' (Andamanese Hunter Gatherers) || A proxy source based on Andamanese genomes representing AASI like (native South Asian hunter gatherer) ancestry in qpAdm models, used to approximate the indigenous Indian component in studies such as those by Lomous Kumar.<br />
|} <br />
<br />
== Bhumihar Genetics according to the Harvard University & David Reich ==<br />
Harvard University’s professors and 114+ genetic scientists from across the globe conducted the most extensive and detailed genetic research on Indian castes & tribes, headed by David Reich, world’s leading geneticist and the director of David Reich Lab at the Harvard University.<br />
<br />
This research, “[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aat7487 The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia]”, highlighted several points about Bhumihars as follows: <br />
<br />
=== ''(A) “Steppe ancestry in modern South Asians is primarily from males and disproportionately high in Brahmin and Bhumihar groups"'' ===<br />
[[File:Image.png|center|thumb|624x624px]]<br />
<br />
=== ''(B) “Groups that traditionally view themselves as being of priestly status (Brahmin, Pandit, and Bhumihar) tend to have a significantly higher ratio of Central_Steppe_MLBA to Indus_Periphery_Cline ancestry than other groups”'' ===<br />
[[File:Harvard1.jpg|center|thumb|624x624px]]<br />
<br />
=== (C) Strongest signals of Steppe ancestry in the Gangetic plains were found amongst the Bihari Bhumihars ===<br />
[[File:IMG 20260806 083826.jpg|center|thumb|372x372px]]<br />
<br />
=== (D) According to David Reich's genetic research, Bihari Bhumihars were found to have higher Steppe ancestry and lower AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer)-proxy Indigenous ancestry than Gangetic Plains Brahmins and Rajputs. ===<br />
In the DNA research on Indian castes by Dr. David Reich, Harvard University and world's most renowned genetic scientist, '''Bihari Bhumihars''' '''were found to have higher''' '''Steppe ancestry''' than '''Gangetic Plains Brahmins''' and '''Rajputs'''. They were also found to have lower '''Indigenous ancestry''', for which '''AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer)''' was used as a proxy, compared with Gangetic Brahmins and Rajputs. <br />
<br />
'''How to access this''' - The exact ancestry percentages are provided in David Reich's widely cited research paper on Indian populations, '''[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aat7487 "The Formation of Human Populations in South and Central Asia."]''' Specifically, they are listed in the supplementary material at the end of the paper, in the spreadsheet named '''"File (aat7487_tables1-5.xlsx),"''' under '''Table S5'''.<br />
<br />
{| style="margin:auto; text-align:center;"<br />
| [[File:G7.png|350px|thumb|'''Model 1''' Bihari Bhumihars are estimated to have '''28.3%''' Central Steppe_MLBA-related ancestry and '''21.3%''' AHG-related ancestry, compared with Brahmin_UP (26.4% Steppe, 24.8% AHG), Brahmin_Tiwari (27.0% Steppe, 23.6% AHG), Brahmin_Haryana (24.0% Steppe, 18.8% AHG), and Rajputs (23.5% Steppe, 25% AHG), respectively.]]<br />
| [[File:G4.png|350px|thumb|'''Model 2''' Bihari Bhumihars are estimated to have '''26.3%''' Central Steppe_MLBA-related ancestry and '''26.4%''' AHG-related ancestry, compared with Brahmin_UP (25.0% Steppe, 29.1% AHG), Brahmin_Tiwari (25.2% Steppe, 28.2% AHG), Brahmin_Haryana (23.1% Steppe, 25.2% AHG), and Rajputs (21.9% Steppe, 29.5% AHG), respectively.]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Bhumihars show the highest Steppe ancestry among Brahmin groups in the 2024 genetics/DNA research ==<br />
<br />
The 2024 research Distinct Positions of Genetic and Oral Histories: Perspectives from India applied qpAdm modeling to find the proportions of Steppe and Onge-related (AASI or the indigenous Indian component) ancestry and '''Bhumihars of Bihar came out to have the highest Steppe ancestry (29.0%) among the Brahmin groups, more than Brahmin Tiwari (27.9%), Saryuparin Brahmins (26.1% Steppe), and West Bengal Brahmins (22.3% Steppe)'''. Their estimated Steppe ancestry was also higher than that of the sampled Rajputs (20.8% Steppe) and Khatris (26.9% Steppe). <br />
<br />
Conversely, Bhumihars displayed the lowest Onge-related ancestry (20.7%) among the Brahmin groups in the dataset, lower than Brahmin Tiwari (23.4%), Saryupari Brahmins (22.8%), West Bengal Brahmins (30.6%), Rajputs (21.9%) but the Khatris (11.6%) have even lower Onge related ancestry than Bhumihars. '''Khatris showed nearly half the amount of Onge-related ancestry compared to Gangetic Brahmins and the Bihari Bhumihars'''.<br />
<br />
'''How to access this''' and view the spreadsheet from the research paper: <br />
<br />
Link: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.06.498959v3 '''Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India, 2024'''] <br />
<br />
Step 1) Go to the link of the research paper, scroll down and navigate to the "Supplementary Materials" section and there you'll find the "Supplementary Tables" in the form of an Excel Sheet / Spreadsheet. <br />
<br />
Step 2) Inside the spreadsheet, go to the table number 'S6' to find the spreadsheet of the ancestry '''qpAdm runs from the research posted below'''. [[File:IMG 20260806 103606 481.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.06.498959v3 Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India, 2024] |501x501px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 3 ==<br />
According to a 2020 research, Bhumihars show higher Steppe ancestry compared to other caste groups such as Kshatriyas, Kurmis, Tharus, Srivastavas, Yadavs, Nais, Thakurs, and Brahmins sampled in the research.<br />
[[File:Bmc.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12863-020-00919-2 The story of the lost twins: decoding the genetic identities of the Kumhar and Kurcha populations from the Indian subcontinent - BMC Genomics, 2020]|530x530px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 4 ==<br />
According to a 2021 research, Bihari Bhumihars have higher Eastern European Hunter Gatherer, Western Steppe and Central Steppe than other groups like Kambojs, Dogras, Haviks and Brahmins. '''This research showed results of 3 different models.'''<br />
[[File:Hgenome-1.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
[[File:Hgenome-2.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
[[File:Hgenome-3.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 5 ==<br />
According to a 2022, research Bhumihars have higher Steppe_MLBA ancestry than other groups like Kambojs, Gujjars, Nairs, Brahmins, Dogras, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, Bunts etc sampled in the research.<br />
[[File:Rxiv.jpg|center|thumb|Source: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.20.500704v1 Genetic affinities and sub-structuring in Coorg population of Southern India - 2022]|547x547px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 6 ==<br />
According to a 2023 research, Bihari Bhumihars were found to be having higher Steppe_MLBA ancestry than other groups like Kambojs, Gujjars, Nairs, Brahmins, Dogras, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, Bunts etc sampled in yet another research.<br />
[[File:Genome.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38079532/ Genetic Affinities and Adaptation of the South-West Coast Populations of India - Genome Biology and Evolution, 2023]|540x540px]]<br />
<br />
== Summary ==<br />
Genetic studies published between 2019 to 2024 suggest that the Bhumihars carry a slightly higher proportion of Bronze Age Steppe ancestry compared to other upper castes of the Indo-Gangetic plains and beyond, except for Jats, Rors and Pashtuns. <br />
<br />
Researchers suggest this pattern stems from early historical admixture, as occurred during the formation of all Indian castes, which was then preserved through centuries of endogamy.<br />
<br />
== References ==</div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=Bhumihar_Genetics&diff=890Bhumihar Genetics2026-08-06T13:20:07Z<p>Jalewar: citations</p>
<hr />
<div>On average, Bhumihar ancestry is derived 31.32% from Steppe_MLBA, 33.31% from AASI (Ancient Ancestral South Indian) and the remaining 35.36% from IVC-related / Indus Periphery farmers. <br />
<br />
Across multiple genetic studies published between 2019 and 2024, Bhumihars consistently show higher Steppe-related ancestry and lower Indigenous (AHG/Onge-related proxy) ancestry than Brahmins and Rajputs. '''The landmark 2019 Harvard University research on South Asian caste genetics/DNA, which is to date the largest and most renowned study on the genetics of Indian castes''', reported disproportionately high Steppe ancestry in Bhumihars compared to Brahmins, Rajputs, Gangetic castes, and the non-Jat/Ror/Pashtun castes of North-West India and Pakistan. <br />
<br />
The 2024 study ''<u>Distinct Positions of Genetic and Oral Histories: Perspectives from India</u>''<ref>[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666247724000447 Biddanda A, Bandyopadhyay E, de la Fuente Castro C, Witonsky D, Urban Aragon JA, Pasupuleti N, Moots HM, Fonseca R, Freilich S, Stanisavic J, Willis T, Menon A, Mustak MS, Kodira CD, Naren AP, Sikdar M, Rai N, Raghavan M. Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India. HGG Adv. 2024 Jul 18;5(3):100305. doi: 10.1016/j.xhgg.2024.100305. Epub 2024 May 8. PMID: 38720459; PMCID: PMC11153255.]</ref> likewise identified the sampled Bihari '''Bhumihars as having the highest Steppe ancestry among the sampled Brahmin groups, placing them above the Brahmin Tiwari, Saryuparin and West Bengal Brahmin groups, as well as the Rajputs'''. Independent studies published in BMC Genomics (2020), Human Genetics (2021), bioRxiv (2022) and Genome Biology and Evolution (2023) '''similarly reported comparatively high Steppe-related and European Hunter-Gatherer ancestry in Bhumihars''' than in several other sampled caste groups, including Brahmins, Rajputs, Kambojs, Dogras, Gujjars, Nairs, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, and Bunts.<br />
<br />
== Key concepts of Indian population genetics ==<br />
All mainstream South Asians are a mixture of three major ancestral components: Steppe_MLBA, IVC (Indus Valley Civilization-related) and AASI/SAHG (South Asians Hunter Gatherers also called Ancient Ancestral South Indian). Researchers use Onge or AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer) as proxies for AASI. The IVC-related ancestry itself is an earlier mixture of Iranian farmer-related ancestry and SAHG/AASI, after which Steppe_MLBA ancestry mixed with IVC-related populations to form the ancestry found in many present-day South Asians.<br />
<br />
These three ancestral components are found in almost all mainstream South Asians, but in different proportions. Every caste and community has its own typical range of these ancestry components, although these ranges often overlap with those of other castes and communities.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! # !! Component !! Mainly Associated With<br />
|-<br />
| 1 || '''Steppe_MLBA''' || Late Bronze Age steppe pastoralist populations (Sintashta/Andronovo-like), Indo-Iranian/Indo-European–linked movements into South Asia in the 2nd millennium BCE, and a substantial part of the ancestry of many Indo-Aryan–speaking and some higher-caste groups. These people are credited to have likely brought the Indo European language family into South Asia.<br />
|-<br />
| 2 || '''IVC''' (Indus-related / Indus Periphery) || People of the Indus Valley Civilization and surrounding regions, a mixture of Iran-related early farmer ancestry and South Asian hunter-gatherers, and the largest single ancestral layer feeding into both ANI and ASI-rich populations across South Asia.<br />
|-<br />
| 3 || '''AASI''' (Ancient Ancestral South Indian) || The local, native South Asian hunter gatherer ancestry that predates farming and steppe migrations and contributes substantially to many present day South Asian groups.<br />
|-<br />
| 4 || '''AHG''' (Andamanese Hunter Gatherers) || A proxy source based on Andamanese genomes representing AASI like (native South Asian hunter gatherer) ancestry in qpAdm models, used to approximate the indigenous Indian component in studies such as those by Lomous Kumar.<br />
|} <br />
<br />
== Bhumihar Genetics according to the Harvard University & David Reich ==<br />
Harvard University’s professors and 114+ genetic scientists from across the globe conducted the most extensive and detailed genetic research on Indian castes & tribes, headed by David Reich, world’s leading geneticist and the director of David Reich Lab at the Harvard University.<br />
<br />
This research, “[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aat7487 The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia]”, highlighted several points about Bhumihars as follows: <br />
<br />
=== ''(A) “Steppe ancestry in modern South Asians is primarily from males and disproportionately high in Brahmin and Bhumihar groups"'' ===<br />
[[File:Image.png|center|thumb|624x624px]]<br />
<br />
=== ''(B) “Groups that traditionally view themselves as being of priestly status (Brahmin, Pandit, and Bhumihar) tend to have a significantly higher ratio of Central_Steppe_MLBA to Indus_Periphery_Cline ancestry than other groups”'' ===<br />
[[File:Harvard1.jpg|center|thumb|624x624px]]<br />
<br />
=== (C) Strongest signals of Steppe ancestry in the Gangetic plains were found amongst the Bihari Bhumihars ===<br />
[[File:IMG 20260806 083826.jpg|center|thumb|372x372px]]<br />
<br />
=== (D) According to David Reich's genetic research, Bihari Bhumihars were found to have higher Steppe ancestry and lower AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer)-proxy Indigenous ancestry than Gangetic Plains Brahmins and Rajputs. ===<br />
In the DNA research on Indian castes by Dr. David Reich, Harvard University and world's most renowned genetic scientist, '''Bihari Bhumihars''' '''were found to have higher''' '''Steppe ancestry''' than '''Gangetic Plains Brahmins''' and '''Rajputs'''. They were also found to have lower '''Indigenous ancestry''', for which '''AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer)''' was used as a proxy, compared with Gangetic Brahmins and Rajputs. <br />
<br />
'''How to access this''' - The exact ancestry percentages are provided in David Reich's widely cited research paper on Indian populations, '''[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aat7487 "The Formation of Human Populations in South and Central Asia."]''' Specifically, they are listed in the supplementary material at the end of the paper, in the spreadsheet named '''"File (aat7487_tables1-5.xlsx),"''' under '''Table S5'''.<br />
<br />
{| style="margin:auto; text-align:center;"<br />
| [[File:G7.png|350px|thumb|'''Model 1''' Bihari Bhumihars are estimated to have '''28.3%''' Central Steppe_MLBA-related ancestry and '''21.3%''' AHG-related ancestry, compared with Brahmin_UP (26.4% Steppe, 24.8% AHG), Brahmin_Tiwari (27.0% Steppe, 23.6% AHG), Brahmin_Haryana (24.0% Steppe, 18.8% AHG), and Rajputs (23.5% Steppe, 25% AHG), respectively.]]<br />
| [[File:G4.png|350px|thumb|'''Model 2''' Bihari Bhumihars are estimated to have '''26.3%''' Central Steppe_MLBA-related ancestry and '''26.4%''' AHG-related ancestry, compared with Brahmin_UP (25.0% Steppe, 29.1% AHG), Brahmin_Tiwari (25.2% Steppe, 28.2% AHG), Brahmin_Haryana (23.1% Steppe, 25.2% AHG), and Rajputs (21.9% Steppe, 29.5% AHG), respectively.]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Bhumihars show the highest Steppe ancestry among Brahmin groups in the 2024 genetics/DNA research ==<br />
<br />
The 2024 research Distinct Positions of Genetic and Oral Histories: Perspectives from India applied qpAdm modeling to find the proportions of Steppe and Onge-related (AASI or the indigenous Indian component) ancestry and '''Bhumihars of Bihar came out to have the highest Steppe ancestry (29.0%) among the Brahmin groups, more than Brahmin Tiwari (27.9%), Saryuparin Brahmins (26.1% Steppe), and West Bengal Brahmins (22.3% Steppe)'''. Their estimated Steppe ancestry was also higher than that of the sampled Rajputs (20.8% Steppe) and Khatris (26.9% Steppe). <br />
<br />
Conversely, Bhumihars displayed the lowest Onge-related ancestry (20.7%) among the Brahmin groups in the dataset, lower than Brahmin Tiwari (23.4%), Saryupari Brahmins (22.8%), West Bengal Brahmins (30.6%), Rajputs (21.9%) but the Khatris (11.6%) have even lower Onge related ancestry than Bhumihars. '''Khatris showed nearly half the amount of Onge-related ancestry compared to Gangetic Brahmins and the Bihari Bhumihars'''.<br />
<br />
'''How to access this''' and view the spreadsheet from the research paper: <br />
<br />
Link: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.06.498959v3 '''Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India, 2024'''] <br />
<br />
Step 1) Go to the link of the research paper, scroll down and navigate to the "Supplementary Materials" section and there you'll find the "Supplementary Tables" in the form of an Excel Sheet / Spreadsheet. <br />
<br />
Step 2) Inside the spreadsheet, go to the table number 'S6' to find the spreadsheet of the ancestry '''qpAdm runs from the research posted below'''. [[File:IMG 20260806 103606 481.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.06.498959v3 Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India, 2024] |501x501px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 3 ==<br />
According to a 2020 research, Bhumihars show higher Steppe ancestry compared to other caste groups such as Kshatriyas, Kurmis, Tharus, Srivastavas, Yadavs, Nais, Thakurs, and Brahmins sampled in the research.<br />
[[File:Bmc.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12863-020-00919-2 The story of the lost twins: decoding the genetic identities of the Kumhar and Kurcha populations from the Indian subcontinent - BMC Genomics, 2020]|530x530px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 4 ==<br />
According to a 2021 research, Bihari Bhumihars have higher Eastern European Hunter Gatherer, Western Steppe and Central Steppe than other groups like Kambojs, Dogras, Haviks and Brahmins. '''This research showed results of 3 different models.'''<br />
[[File:Hgenome-1.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
[[File:Hgenome-2.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
[[File:Hgenome-3.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 5 ==<br />
According to a 2022, research Bhumihars have higher Steppe_MLBA ancestry than other groups like Kambojs, Gujjars, Nairs, Brahmins, Dogras, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, Bunts etc sampled in the research.<br />
[[File:Rxiv.jpg|center|thumb|Source: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.20.500704v1 Genetic affinities and sub-structuring in Coorg population of Southern India - 2022]|547x547px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 6 ==<br />
According to a 2023 research, Bihari Bhumihars were found to be having higher Steppe_MLBA ancestry than other groups like Kambojs, Gujjars, Nairs, Brahmins, Dogras, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, Bunts etc sampled in yet another research.<br />
[[File:Genome.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38079532/ Genetic Affinities and Adaptation of the South-West Coast Populations of India - Genome Biology and Evolution, 2023]|540x540px]]<br />
<br />
== Summary ==<br />
Genetic studies published between 2019 to 2024 suggest that the Bhumihars carry a slightly higher proportion of Bronze Age Steppe ancestry compared to other upper castes of the Indo-Gangetic plains and beyond, except for Jats, Rors and Pashtuns. <br />
<br />
Researchers suggest this pattern stems from early historical admixture, as occurred during the formation of all Indian castes, which was then preserved through centuries of endogamy.<br />
<br />
== References ==</div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=Bhumihar_Genetics&diff=889Bhumihar Genetics2026-08-06T13:08:48Z<p>Jalewar: Minor rephrasing</p>
<hr />
<div>On average, Bhumihar ancestry is derived 31.32% from Steppe_MLBA, 33.31% from AASI (Ancient Ancestral South Indian) and the remaining 35.36% from IVC-related / Indus Periphery farmers. <br />
<br />
Across multiple genetic studies published between 2019 and 2024, Bhumihars consistently show higher Steppe-related ancestry and lower Indigenous (AHG/Onge-related proxy) ancestry than Brahmins and Rajputs. '''The landmark 2019 Harvard University research on South Asian caste genetics/DNA, which is to date the largest and most renowned study on the genetics of Indian castes''', reported disproportionately high Steppe ancestry in Bhumihars compared to Brahmins, Rajputs, Gangetic castes, and the non-Jat/Ror/Pashtun castes of North-West India and Pakistan. <br />
<br />
The 2024 study ''<u>Distinct Positions of Genetic and Oral Histories: Perspectives from India</u>'' likewise identified the sampled Bihari '''Bhumihars as having the highest Steppe ancestry among the sampled Brahmin groups, placing them above the Brahmin Tiwari, Saryuparin and West Bengal Brahmin groups, as well as the Rajputs'''. Independent studies published in BMC Genomics (2020), Human Genetics (2021), bioRxiv (2022) and Genome Biology and Evolution (2023) '''similarly reported comparatively high Steppe-related and European Hunter-Gatherer ancestry in Bhumihars''' than in several other sampled caste groups, including Brahmins, Rajputs, Kambojs, Dogras, Gujjars, Nairs, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, and Bunts.<br />
<br />
== Key concepts of Indian population genetics ==<br />
All mainstream South Asians are a mixture of three major ancestral components: Steppe_MLBA, IVC (Indus Valley Civilization-related) and AASI/SAHG (South Asians Hunter Gatherers also called Ancient Ancestral South Indian). Researchers use Onge or AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer) as proxies for AASI. The IVC-related ancestry itself is an earlier mixture of Iranian farmer-related ancestry and SAHG/AASI, after which Steppe_MLBA ancestry mixed with IVC-related populations to form the ancestry found in many present-day South Asians.<br />
<br />
These three ancestral components are found in almost all mainstream South Asians, but in different proportions. Every caste and community has its own typical range of these ancestry components, although these ranges often overlap with those of other castes and communities.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! # !! Component !! Mainly Associated With<br />
|-<br />
| 1 || '''Steppe_MLBA''' || Late Bronze Age steppe pastoralist populations (Sintashta/Andronovo-like), Indo-Iranian/Indo-European–linked movements into South Asia in the 2nd millennium BCE, and a substantial part of the ancestry of many Indo-Aryan–speaking and some higher-caste groups. These people are credited to have likely brought the Indo European language family into South Asia.<br />
|-<br />
| 2 || '''IVC''' (Indus-related / Indus Periphery) || People of the Indus Valley Civilization and surrounding regions, a mixture of Iran-related early farmer ancestry and South Asian hunter-gatherers, and the largest single ancestral layer feeding into both ANI and ASI-rich populations across South Asia.<br />
|-<br />
| 3 || '''AASI''' (Ancient Ancestral South Indian) || The local, native South Asian hunter gatherer ancestry that predates farming and steppe migrations and contributes substantially to many present day South Asian groups.<br />
|-<br />
| 4 || '''AHG''' (Andamanese Hunter Gatherers) || A proxy source based on Andamanese genomes representing AASI like (native South Asian hunter gatherer) ancestry in qpAdm models, used to approximate the indigenous Indian component in studies such as those by Lomous Kumar.<br />
|} <br />
<br />
== Bhumihar Genetics according to the Harvard University & David Reich ==<br />
Harvard University’s professors and 114+ genetic scientists from across the globe conducted the most extensive and detailed genetic research on Indian castes & tribes, headed by David Reich, world’s leading geneticist and the director of David Reich Lab at the Harvard University.<br />
<br />
This research, “[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aat7487 The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia]”, highlighted several points about Bhumihars as follows: <br />
<br />
=== ''(A) “Steppe ancestry in modern South Asians is primarily from males and disproportionately high in Brahmin and Bhumihar groups"'' ===<br />
[[File:Image.png|center|thumb|624x624px]]<br />
<br />
=== ''(B) “Groups that traditionally view themselves as being of priestly status (Brahmin, Pandit, and Bhumihar) tend to have a significantly higher ratio of Central_Steppe_MLBA to Indus_Periphery_Cline ancestry than other groups”'' ===<br />
[[File:Harvard1.jpg|center|thumb|624x624px]]<br />
<br />
=== (C) Strongest signals of Steppe ancestry in the Gangetic plains were found amongst the Bihari Bhumihars ===<br />
[[File:IMG 20260806 083826.jpg|center|thumb|372x372px]]<br />
<br />
=== (D) According to David Reich's genetic research, Bihari Bhumihars were found to have higher Steppe ancestry and lower AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer)-proxy Indigenous ancestry than Gangetic Plains Brahmins and Rajputs. ===<br />
In the DNA research on Indian castes by Dr. David Reich, Harvard University and world's most renowned genetic scientist, '''Bihari Bhumihars''' '''were found to have higher''' '''Steppe ancestry''' than '''Gangetic Plains Brahmins''' and '''Rajputs'''. They were also found to have lower '''Indigenous ancestry''', for which '''AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer)''' was used as a proxy, compared with Gangetic Brahmins and Rajputs. <br />
<br />
'''How to access this''' - The exact ancestry percentages are provided in David Reich's widely cited research paper on Indian populations, '''[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aat7487 "The Formation of Human Populations in South and Central Asia."]''' Specifically, they are listed in the supplementary material at the end of the paper, in the spreadsheet named '''"File (aat7487_tables1-5.xlsx),"''' under '''Table S5'''.<br />
<br />
{| style="margin:auto; text-align:center;"<br />
| [[File:G7.png|350px|thumb|'''Model 1''' Bihari Bhumihars are estimated to have '''28.3%''' Central Steppe_MLBA-related ancestry and '''21.3%''' AHG-related ancestry, compared with Brahmin_UP (26.4% Steppe, 24.8% AHG), Brahmin_Tiwari (27.0% Steppe, 23.6% AHG), Brahmin_Haryana (24.0% Steppe, 18.8% AHG), and Rajputs (23.5% Steppe, 25% AHG), respectively.]]<br />
| [[File:G4.png|350px|thumb|'''Model 2''' Bihari Bhumihars are estimated to have '''26.3%''' Central Steppe_MLBA-related ancestry and '''26.4%''' AHG-related ancestry, compared with Brahmin_UP (25.0% Steppe, 29.1% AHG), Brahmin_Tiwari (25.2% Steppe, 28.2% AHG), Brahmin_Haryana (23.1% Steppe, 25.2% AHG), and Rajputs (21.9% Steppe, 29.5% AHG), respectively.]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Bhumihars show the highest Steppe ancestry among Brahmin groups in the 2024 genetics/DNA research ==<br />
<br />
The 2024 research Distinct Positions of Genetic and Oral Histories: Perspectives from India applied qpAdm modeling to find the proportions of Steppe and Onge-related (AASI or the indigenous Indian component) ancestry and '''Bhumihars of Bihar came out to have the highest Steppe ancestry (29.0%) among the Brahmin groups, more than Brahmin Tiwari (27.9%), Saryuparin Brahmins (26.1% Steppe), and West Bengal Brahmins (22.3% Steppe)'''. Their estimated Steppe ancestry was also higher than that of the sampled Rajputs (20.8% Steppe) and Khatris (26.9% Steppe). <br />
<br />
Conversely, Bhumihars displayed the lowest Onge-related ancestry (20.7%) among the Brahmin groups in the dataset, lower than Brahmin Tiwari (23.4%), Saryupari Brahmins (22.8%), West Bengal Brahmins (30.6%), Rajputs (21.9%) but the Khatris (11.6%) have even lower Onge related ancestry than Bhumihars. '''Khatris showed nearly half the amount of Onge-related ancestry compared to Gangetic Brahmins and the Bihari Bhumihars'''.<br />
<br />
'''How to access this''' and view the spreadsheet from the research paper: <br />
<br />
Link: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.06.498959v3 '''Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India, 2024'''] <br />
<br />
Step 1) Go to the link of the research paper, scroll down and navigate to the "Supplementary Materials" section and there you'll find the "Supplementary Tables" in the form of an Excel Sheet / Spreadsheet. <br />
<br />
Step 2) Inside the spreadsheet, go to the table number 'S6' to find the spreadsheet of the ancestry '''qpAdm runs from the research posted below'''. [[File:IMG 20260806 103606 481.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.06.498959v3 Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India, 2024] |501x501px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 3 ==<br />
According to a 2020 research, Bhumihars show higher Steppe ancestry compared to other caste groups such as Kshatriyas, Kurmis, Tharus, Srivastavas, Yadavs, Nais, Thakurs, and Brahmins sampled in the research.<br />
[[File:Bmc.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12863-020-00919-2 The story of the lost twins: decoding the genetic identities of the Kumhar and Kurcha populations from the Indian subcontinent - BMC Genomics, 2020]|530x530px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 4 ==<br />
According to a 2021 research, Bihari Bhumihars have higher Eastern European Hunter Gatherer, Western Steppe and Central Steppe than other groups like Kambojs, Dogras, Haviks and Brahmins. '''This research showed results of 3 different models.'''<br />
[[File:Hgenome-1.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
[[File:Hgenome-2.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
[[File:Hgenome-3.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 5 ==<br />
According to a 2022, research Bhumihars have higher Steppe_MLBA ancestry than other groups like Kambojs, Gujjars, Nairs, Brahmins, Dogras, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, Bunts etc sampled in the research.<br />
[[File:Rxiv.jpg|center|thumb|Source: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.20.500704v1 Genetic affinities and sub-structuring in Coorg population of Southern India - 2022]|547x547px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 6 ==<br />
According to a 2023 research, Bihari Bhumihars were found to be having higher Steppe_MLBA ancestry than other groups like Kambojs, Gujjars, Nairs, Brahmins, Dogras, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, Bunts etc sampled in yet another research.<br />
[[File:Genome.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38079532/ Genetic Affinities and Adaptation of the South-West Coast Populations of India - Genome Biology and Evolution, 2023]|540x540px]]<br />
<br />
== Summary ==<br />
Genetic studies published between 2019 to 2024 suggest that the Bhumihars carry a slightly higher proportion of Bronze Age Steppe ancestry compared to other upper castes of the Indo-Gangetic plains and beyond, except for Jats, Rors and Pashtuns. <br />
<br />
Researchers suggest this pattern stems from early historical admixture, as occurred during the formation of all Indian castes, which was then preserved through centuries of endogamy.<br />
<br />
== References ==</div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=Bhumihar_Genetics&diff=888Bhumihar Genetics2026-08-06T12:58:16Z<p>Jalewar: Minor rephrasing</p>
<hr />
<div>On average, Bhumihar ancestry is derived 31.32% from Steppe_MLBA, 33.31% from AASI (Ancient Ancestral South Indian) and the remaining 35.36% from IVC-related / Indus Periphery farmers. <br />
<br />
Across multiple genetic studies published between 2019 and 2024, Bhumihars consistently show higher Steppe-related ancestry and lower Indigenous (AHG/Onge-related proxy) ancestry than Brahmins and Rajputs. '''The landmark 2019 Harvard University research on South Asian caste genetics/DNA, which is so far the largest and most renowned research on the genetics of Indian castes''', reported disproportionately high Steppe ancestry in Bhumihars compared to Brahmins, Rajputs, Gangetic castes, and the non-Jat/Ror/Pashtun castes of North West India and Pakistan. <br />
<br />
The 2024 study Distinct Positions of Genetic and Oral Histories: Perspectives from India likewise identified the sampled Bihari '''Bhumihars as having the highest Steppe ancestry among the sampled Brahmin groups, placing them above the sampled Brahmin Tiwari, Saryuparin and West Bengal Brahmin groups, as well as the Rajputs'''. Independent studies published in BMC Genomics (2020), Human Genetics (2021), bioRxiv (2022) and Genome Biology and Evolution (2023) '''similarly reported comparatively higher Steppe-related and European Hunter Gatherer ancestry in Bhumihars''' than in several other sampled caste groups, including Brahmins, Rajputs, Kambojs, Dogras, Gujjars, Nairs, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs and Bunts.<br />
<br />
== Key concepts of Indian population genetics ==<br />
All mainstream South Asians are a mixture of three major ancestral components: Steppe_MLBA, IVC (Indus Valley Civilization-related) and AASI/SAHG (South Asians Hunter Gatherers also called Ancient Ancestral South Indian). Researchers use Onge or AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer) as proxies for AASI. The IVC-related ancestry itself is an earlier mixture of Iranian farmer-related ancestry and SAHG/AASI, after which Steppe_MLBA ancestry mixed with IVC-related populations to form the ancestry found in many present-day South Asians.<br />
<br />
These three ancestral components are found in almost all mainstream South Asians, but in different proportions. Every caste and community has its own typical range of these ancestry components, although these ranges often overlap with those of other castes and communities.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! # !! Component !! Mainly Associated With<br />
|-<br />
| 1 || '''Steppe_MLBA''' || Late Bronze Age steppe pastoralist populations (Sintashta/Andronovo-like), Indo-Iranian/Indo-European–linked movements into South Asia in the 2nd millennium BCE, and a substantial part of the ancestry of many Indo-Aryan–speaking and some higher-caste groups. These people are credited to have likely brought the Indo European language family into South Asia.<br />
|-<br />
| 2 || '''IVC''' (Indus-related / Indus Periphery) || People of the Indus Valley Civilization and surrounding regions, a mixture of Iran-related early farmer ancestry and South Asian hunter-gatherers, and the largest single ancestral layer feeding into both ANI and ASI-rich populations across South Asia.<br />
|-<br />
| 3 || '''AASI''' (Ancient Ancestral South Indian) || The local, native South Asian hunter gatherer ancestry that predates farming and steppe migrations and contributes substantially to many present day South Asian groups.<br />
|-<br />
| 4 || '''AHG''' (Andamanese Hunter Gatherers) || A proxy source based on Andamanese genomes representing AASI like (native South Asian hunter gatherer) ancestry in qpAdm models, used to approximate the indigenous Indian component in studies such as those by Lomous Kumar.<br />
|} <br />
<br />
== Bhumihar Genetics according to the Harvard University & David Reich ==<br />
Harvard University’s professors and 114+ genetic scientists from across the globe conducted the most extensive and detailed genetic research on Indian castes & tribes, headed by David Reich, world’s leading geneticist and the director of David Reich Lab at the Harvard University.<br />
<br />
This research, “[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aat7487 The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia]”, highlighted several points about Bhumihars as follows: <br />
<br />
=== ''(A) “Steppe ancestry in modern South Asians is primarily from males and disproportionately high in Brahmin and Bhumihar groups"'' ===<br />
[[File:Image.png|center|thumb|624x624px]]<br />
<br />
=== ''(B) “Groups that traditionally view themselves as being of priestly status (Brahmin, Pandit, and Bhumihar) tend to have a significantly higher ratio of Central_Steppe_MLBA to Indus_Periphery_Cline ancestry than other groups”'' ===<br />
[[File:Harvard1.jpg|center|thumb|624x624px]]<br />
<br />
=== (C) Strongest signals of Steppe ancestry in the Gangetic plains were found amongst the Bihari Bhumihars ===<br />
[[File:IMG 20260806 083826.jpg|center|thumb|372x372px]]<br />
<br />
=== (D) According to David Reich's genetic research, Bihari Bhumihars were found to have higher Steppe ancestry and lower AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer)-proxy Indigenous ancestry than Gangetic Plains Brahmins and Rajputs. ===<br />
In the DNA research on Indian castes by Dr. David Reich, Harvard University and world's most renowned genetic scientist, '''Bihari Bhumihars''' '''were found to have higher''' '''Steppe ancestry''' than '''Gangetic Plains Brahmins''' and '''Rajputs'''. They were also found to have lower '''Indigenous ancestry''', for which '''AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer)''' was used as a proxy, compared with Gangetic Brahmins and Rajputs. <br />
<br />
'''How to access this''' - The exact ancestry percentages are provided in David Reich's widely cited research paper on Indian populations, '''[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aat7487 "The Formation of Human Populations in South and Central Asia."]''' Specifically, they are listed in the supplementary material at the end of the paper, in the spreadsheet named '''"File (aat7487_tables1-5.xlsx),"''' under '''Table S5'''.<br />
<br />
{| style="margin:auto; text-align:center;"<br />
| [[File:G7.png|350px|thumb|'''Model 1''' Bihari Bhumihars are estimated to have '''28.3%''' Central Steppe_MLBA-related ancestry and '''21.3%''' AHG-related ancestry, compared with Brahmin_UP (26.4% Steppe, 24.8% AHG), Brahmin_Tiwari (27.0% Steppe, 23.6% AHG), Brahmin_Haryana (24.0% Steppe, 18.8% AHG), and Rajputs (23.5% Steppe, 25% AHG), respectively.]]<br />
| [[File:G4.png|350px|thumb|'''Model 2''' Bihari Bhumihars are estimated to have '''26.3%''' Central Steppe_MLBA-related ancestry and '''26.4%''' AHG-related ancestry, compared with Brahmin_UP (25.0% Steppe, 29.1% AHG), Brahmin_Tiwari (25.2% Steppe, 28.2% AHG), Brahmin_Haryana (23.1% Steppe, 25.2% AHG), and Rajputs (21.9% Steppe, 29.5% AHG), respectively.]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Bhumihars show the highest Steppe ancestry among Brahmin groups in the 2024 genetics/DNA research ==<br />
<br />
The 2024 research Distinct Positions of Genetic and Oral Histories: Perspectives from India applied qpAdm modeling to find the proportions of Steppe and Onge-related (AASI or the indigenous Indian component) ancestry and '''Bhumihars of Bihar came out to have the highest Steppe ancestry (29.0%) among the Brahmin groups, more than Brahmin Tiwari (27.9%), Saryuparin Brahmins (26.1% Steppe), and West Bengal Brahmins (22.3% Steppe)'''. Their estimated Steppe ancestry was also higher than that of the sampled Rajputs (20.8% Steppe) and Khatris (26.9% Steppe). <br />
<br />
Conversely, Bhumihars displayed the lowest Onge-related ancestry (20.7%) among the Brahmin groups in the dataset, lower than Brahmin Tiwari (23.4%), Saryupari Brahmins (22.8%), West Bengal Brahmins (30.6%), Rajputs (21.9%) but the Khatris (11.6%) have even lower Onge related ancestry than Bhumihars. '''Khatris showed nearly half the amount of Onge-related ancestry compared to Gangetic Brahmins and the Bihari Bhumihars'''.<br />
<br />
'''How to access this''' and view the spreadsheet from the research paper: <br />
<br />
Link: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.06.498959v3 '''Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India, 2024'''] <br />
<br />
Step 1) Go to the link of the research paper, scroll down and navigate to the "Supplementary Materials" section and there you'll find the "Supplementary Tables" in the form of an Excel Sheet / Spreadsheet. <br />
<br />
Step 2) Inside the spreadsheet, go to the table number 'S6' to find the spreadsheet of the ancestry '''qpAdm runs from the research posted below'''. [[File:IMG 20260806 103606 481.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.06.498959v3 Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India, 2024] |501x501px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 3 ==<br />
According to a 2020 research, Bhumihars show higher Steppe ancestry compared to other caste groups such as Kshatriyas, Kurmis, Tharus, Srivastavas, Yadavs, Nais, Thakurs, and Brahmins sampled in the research.<br />
[[File:Bmc.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12863-020-00919-2 The story of the lost twins: decoding the genetic identities of the Kumhar and Kurcha populations from the Indian subcontinent - BMC Genomics, 2020]|530x530px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 4 ==<br />
According to a 2021 research, Bihari Bhumihars have higher Eastern European Hunter Gatherer, Western Steppe and Central Steppe than other groups like Kambojs, Dogras, Haviks and Brahmins. '''This research showed results of 3 different models.'''<br />
[[File:Hgenome-1.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
[[File:Hgenome-2.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
[[File:Hgenome-3.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 5 ==<br />
According to a 2022, research Bhumihars have higher Steppe_MLBA ancestry than other groups like Kambojs, Gujjars, Nairs, Brahmins, Dogras, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, Bunts etc sampled in the research.<br />
[[File:Rxiv.jpg|center|thumb|Source: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.20.500704v1 Genetic affinities and sub-structuring in Coorg population of Southern India - 2022]|547x547px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 6 ==<br />
According to a 2023 research, Bihari Bhumihars were found to be having higher Steppe_MLBA ancestry than other groups like Kambojs, Gujjars, Nairs, Brahmins, Dogras, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, Bunts etc sampled in yet another research.<br />
[[File:Genome.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38079532/ Genetic Affinities and Adaptation of the South-West Coast Populations of India - Genome Biology and Evolution, 2023]|540x540px]]<br />
<br />
== Summary ==<br />
Genetic studies published between 2019 to 2024 suggest that the Bhumihars carry a slightly higher proportion of Bronze Age Steppe ancestry compared to other upper castes of the Indo-Gangetic plains and beyond, except for Jats, Rors and Pashtuns. <br />
<br />
Researchers suggest this pattern stems from early historical admixture, as occurred during the formation of all Indian castes, which was then preserved through centuries of endogamy.<br />
<br />
== References ==</div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=Bhumihar_Genetics&diff=887Bhumihar Genetics2026-08-06T12:53:04Z<p>Jalewar: Rephrasing</p>
<hr />
<div>On average, 31.32% of Bhumihar's ancestry is derived from Steppe_MLBA, 33.31% from AASI (Ancient Ancestral South Indian) and the remaining 35.36% of average Bhumihar ancestry is derived from IndusFarmer IVC-related / Indus Periphery ancestry. <br />
<br />
Across multiple genetic studies published between 2019 and 2024, Bhumihars consistently show higher Steppe-related ancestry and lower Indigenous (AHG/Onge-related proxy) ancestry than Brahmins and Rajputs. '''The landmark 2019 Harvard University research on South Asian caste genetics/DNA, which is so far the largest and most renowned research on the genetics of Indian castes''', reported disproportionately high Steppe ancestry in Bhumihars compared to Brahmins, Rajputs, Gangetic castes, and the non-Jat/Ror/Pashtun castes of North West India and Pakistan. <br />
<br />
The 2024 study Distinct Positions of Genetic and Oral Histories: Perspectives from India likewise identified the sampled Bihari '''Bhumihars as having the highest Steppe ancestry among the sampled Brahmin groups, placing them above the sampled Brahmin Tiwari, Saryuparin and West Bengal Brahmin groups, as well as the Rajputs'''. Independent studies published in BMC Genomics (2020), Human Genetics (2021), bioRxiv (2022) and Genome Biology and Evolution (2023) '''similarly reported comparatively higher Steppe-related and European Hunter Gatherer ancestry in Bhumihars''' than in several other sampled caste groups, including Brahmins, Rajputs, Kambojs, Dogras, Gujjars, Nairs, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs and Bunts.<br />
<br />
== Key concepts of Indian population genetics ==<br />
All mainstream South Asians are a mixture of three major ancestral components: Steppe_MLBA, IVC (Indus Valley Civilization-related) and AASI/SAHG (South Asians Hunter Gatherers also called Ancient Ancestral South Indian). Researchers use Onge or AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer) as proxies for AASI. The IVC-related ancestry itself is an earlier mixture of Iranian farmer-related ancestry and SAHG/AASI, after which Steppe_MLBA ancestry mixed with IVC-related populations to form the ancestry found in many present-day South Asians.<br />
<br />
These three ancestral components are found in almost all mainstream South Asians, but in different proportions. Every caste and community has its own typical range of these ancestry components, although these ranges often overlap with those of other castes and communities.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! # !! Component !! Mainly Associated With<br />
|-<br />
| 1 || '''Steppe_MLBA''' || Late Bronze Age steppe pastoralist populations (Sintashta/Andronovo-like), Indo-Iranian/Indo-European–linked movements into South Asia in the 2nd millennium BCE, and a substantial part of the ancestry of many Indo-Aryan–speaking and some higher-caste groups. These people are credited to have likely brought the Indo European language family into South Asia.<br />
|-<br />
| 2 || '''IVC''' (Indus-related / Indus Periphery) || People of the Indus Valley Civilization and surrounding regions, a mixture of Iran-related early farmer ancestry and South Asian hunter-gatherers, and the largest single ancestral layer feeding into both ANI and ASI-rich populations across South Asia.<br />
|-<br />
| 3 || '''AASI''' (Ancient Ancestral South Indian) || The local, native South Asian hunter gatherer ancestry that predates farming and steppe migrations and contributes substantially to many present day South Asian groups.<br />
|-<br />
| 4 || '''AHG''' (Andamanese Hunter Gatherers) || A proxy source based on Andamanese genomes representing AASI like (native South Asian hunter gatherer) ancestry in qpAdm models, used to approximate the indigenous Indian component in studies such as those by Lomous Kumar.<br />
|} <br />
<br />
== Bhumihar Genetics according to the Harvard University & David Reich ==<br />
Harvard University’s professors and 114+ genetic scientists from across the globe conducted the most extensive and detailed genetic research on Indian castes & tribes, headed by David Reich, world’s leading geneticist and the director of David Reich Lab at the Harvard University.<br />
<br />
This research, “[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aat7487 The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia]”, highlighted several points about Bhumihars as follows: <br />
<br />
=== ''(A) “Steppe ancestry in modern South Asians is primarily from males and disproportionately high in Brahmin and Bhumihar groups"'' ===<br />
[[File:Image.png|center|thumb|624x624px]]<br />
<br />
=== ''(B) “Groups that traditionally view themselves as being of priestly status (Brahmin, Pandit, and Bhumihar) tend to have a significantly higher ratio of Central_Steppe_MLBA to Indus_Periphery_Cline ancestry than other groups”'' ===<br />
[[File:Harvard1.jpg|center|thumb|624x624px]]<br />
<br />
=== (C) Strongest signals of Steppe ancestry in the Gangetic plains were found amongst the Bihari Bhumihars ===<br />
[[File:IMG 20260806 083826.jpg|center|thumb|372x372px]]<br />
<br />
=== (D) According to David Reich's genetic research, Bihari Bhumihars were found to have higher Steppe ancestry and lower AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer)-proxy Indigenous ancestry than Gangetic Plains Brahmins and Rajputs. ===<br />
In the DNA research on Indian castes by Dr. David Reich, Harvard University and world's most renowned genetic scientist, '''Bihari Bhumihars''' '''were found to have higher''' '''Steppe ancestry''' than '''Gangetic Plains Brahmins''' and '''Rajputs'''. They were also found to have lower '''Indigenous ancestry''', for which '''AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer)''' was used as a proxy, compared with Gangetic Brahmins and Rajputs. <br />
<br />
'''How to access this''' - The exact ancestry percentages are provided in David Reich's widely cited research paper on Indian populations, '''[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aat7487 "The Formation of Human Populations in South and Central Asia."]''' Specifically, they are listed in the supplementary material at the end of the paper, in the spreadsheet named '''"File (aat7487_tables1-5.xlsx),"''' under '''Table S5'''.<br />
<br />
{| style="margin:auto; text-align:center;"<br />
| [[File:G7.png|350px|thumb|'''Model 1''' Bihari Bhumihars are estimated to have '''28.3%''' Central Steppe_MLBA-related ancestry and '''21.3%''' AHG-related ancestry, compared with Brahmin_UP (26.4% Steppe, 24.8% AHG), Brahmin_Tiwari (27.0% Steppe, 23.6% AHG), Brahmin_Haryana (24.0% Steppe, 18.8% AHG), and Rajputs (23.5% Steppe, 25% AHG), respectively.]]<br />
| [[File:G4.png|350px|thumb|'''Model 2''' Bihari Bhumihars are estimated to have '''26.3%''' Central Steppe_MLBA-related ancestry and '''26.4%''' AHG-related ancestry, compared with Brahmin_UP (25.0% Steppe, 29.1% AHG), Brahmin_Tiwari (25.2% Steppe, 28.2% AHG), Brahmin_Haryana (23.1% Steppe, 25.2% AHG), and Rajputs (21.9% Steppe, 29.5% AHG), respectively.]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Bhumihars show the highest Steppe ancestry among Brahmin groups in the 2024 genetics/DNA research ==<br />
<br />
The 2024 research Distinct Positions of Genetic and Oral Histories: Perspectives from India applied qpAdm modeling to find the proportions of Steppe and Onge-related (AASI or the indigenous Indian component) ancestry and '''Bhumihars of Bihar came out to have the highest Steppe ancestry (29.0%) among the Brahmin groups, more than Brahmin Tiwari (27.9%), Saryuparin Brahmins (26.1% Steppe), and West Bengal Brahmins (22.3% Steppe)'''. Their estimated Steppe ancestry was also higher than that of the sampled Rajputs (20.8% Steppe) and Khatris (26.9% Steppe). <br />
<br />
Conversely, Bhumihars displayed the lowest Onge-related ancestry (20.7%) among the Brahmin groups in the dataset, lower than Brahmin Tiwari (23.4%), Saryupari Brahmins (22.8%), West Bengal Brahmins (30.6%), Rajputs (21.9%) but the Khatris (11.6%) have even lower Onge related ancestry than Bhumihars. '''Khatris showed nearly half the amount of Onge-related ancestry compared to Gangetic Brahmins and the Bihari Bhumihars'''.<br />
<br />
'''How to access this''' and view the spreadsheet from the research paper: <br />
<br />
Link: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.06.498959v3 '''Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India, 2024'''] <br />
<br />
Step 1) Go to the link of the research paper, scroll down and navigate to the "Supplementary Materials" section and there you'll find the "Supplementary Tables" in the form of an Excel Sheet / Spreadsheet. <br />
<br />
Step 2) Inside the spreadsheet, go to the table number 'S6' to find the spreadsheet of the ancestry '''qpAdm runs from the research posted below'''. [[File:IMG 20260806 103606 481.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.06.498959v3 Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India, 2024] |501x501px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 3 ==<br />
According to a 2020 research, Bhumihars show higher Steppe ancestry compared to other caste groups such as Kshatriyas, Kurmis, Tharus, Srivastavas, Yadavs, Nais, Thakurs, and Brahmins sampled in the research.<br />
[[File:Bmc.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12863-020-00919-2 The story of the lost twins: decoding the genetic identities of the Kumhar and Kurcha populations from the Indian subcontinent - BMC Genomics, 2020]|530x530px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 4 ==<br />
According to a 2021 research, Bihari Bhumihars have higher Eastern European Hunter Gatherer, Western Steppe and Central Steppe than other groups like Kambojs, Dogras, Haviks and Brahmins. '''This research showed results of 3 different models.'''<br />
[[File:Hgenome-1.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
[[File:Hgenome-2.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
[[File:Hgenome-3.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 5 ==<br />
According to a 2022, research Bhumihars have higher Steppe_MLBA ancestry than other groups like Kambojs, Gujjars, Nairs, Brahmins, Dogras, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, Bunts etc sampled in the research.<br />
[[File:Rxiv.jpg|center|thumb|Source: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.20.500704v1 Genetic affinities and sub-structuring in Coorg population of Southern India - 2022]|547x547px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 6 ==<br />
According to a 2023 research, Bihari Bhumihars were found to be having higher Steppe_MLBA ancestry than other groups like Kambojs, Gujjars, Nairs, Brahmins, Dogras, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, Bunts etc sampled in yet another research.<br />
[[File:Genome.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38079532/ Genetic Affinities and Adaptation of the South-West Coast Populations of India - Genome Biology and Evolution, 2023]|540x540px]]<br />
<br />
== Summary ==<br />
Genetic studies published between 2019 to 2024 suggest that the Bhumihars carry a slightly higher proportion of Bronze Age Steppe ancestry compared to other upper castes of the Indo-Gangetic plains and beyond, except for Jats, Rors and Pashtuns. <br />
<br />
Researchers suggest this pattern stems from early historical admixture, as occurred during the formation of all Indian castes, which was then preserved through centuries of endogamy.<br />
<br />
== References ==</div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=Bhumihar_Genetics&diff=886Bhumihar Genetics2026-08-06T12:50:39Z<p>Jalewar: Rephrasing</p>
<hr />
<div>On average, 31.32% of Bhumihar's ancestry is derived from Steppe_MLBA, 33.31% from AASI (Ancient Ancestral South Indian) and the remaining 35.36% of average Bhumihar ancestry is derived from IndusFarmer IVC-related / Indus Periphery ancestry. <br />
<br />
Across multiple genetic studies published between 2019 and 2024, Bhumihars consistently show higher Steppe-related ancestry and lower Indigenous (AHG/Onge-related proxy) ancestry than Brahmins and Rajputs. '''The landmark 2019 Harvard University research on South Asian caste genetics/DNA, which is so far the largest and most renowned research on the genetics of Indian castes''', reported disproportionately high Steppe ancestry in Bhumihars compared to Brahmins, Rajputs, Gangetic castes, and the non-Jat/Ror/Pashtun castes of North West India and Pakistan. <br />
<br />
The 2024 study Distinct Positions of Genetic and Oral Histories: Perspectives from India likewise identified the sampled Bihari '''Bhumihars as having the highest Steppe ancestry among the sampled Brahmin groups, placing them above the sampled Brahmin Tiwari, Saryuparin and West Bengal Brahmin groups, as well as the Rajputs'''. Independent studies published in BMC Genomics (2020), Human Genetics (2021), bioRxiv (2022) and Genome Biology and Evolution (2023) '''similarly reported comparatively higher Steppe-related and European Hunter Gatherer ancestry in Bhumihars''' than in several other sampled caste groups, including Brahmins, Rajputs, Kambojs, Dogras, Gujjars, Nairs, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs and Bunts.<br />
<br />
== Key concepts of Indian population genetics ==<br />
All mainstream South Asians are a mixture of three major ancestral components: Steppe_MLBA, IVC (Indus Valley Civilization-related) and AASI/SAHG (South Asians Hunter Gatherers also called Ancient Ancestral South Indian). Researchers use Onge or AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer) as proxies for AASI. The IVC-related ancestry itself is an earlier mixture of Iranian farmer-related ancestry and SAHG/AASI, after which Steppe_MLBA ancestry mixed with IVC-related populations to form the ancestry found in many present-day South Asians.<br />
<br />
These three ancestral components are found in almost all mainstream South Asians, but in different proportions. Every caste and community has its own typical range of these ancestry components, although these ranges often overlap with those of other castes and communities.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! # !! Component !! Mainly Associated With<br />
|-<br />
| 1 || '''Steppe_MLBA''' || Late Bronze Age steppe pastoralist populations (Sintashta/Andronovo-like), Indo-Iranian/Indo-European–linked movements into South Asia in the 2nd millennium BCE, and a substantial part of the ancestry of many Indo-Aryan–speaking and some higher-caste groups. These people are credited to have likely brought the Indo European language family into South Asia.<br />
|-<br />
| 2 || '''IVC''' (Indus-related / Indus Periphery) || People of the Indus Valley Civilization and surrounding regions, a mixture of Iran-related early farmer ancestry and South Asian hunter-gatherers, and the largest single ancestral layer feeding into both ANI and ASI-rich populations across South Asia.<br />
|-<br />
| 3 || '''AASI''' (Ancient Ancestral South Indian) || The local, native South Asian hunter gatherer ancestry that predates farming and steppe migrations and contributes substantially to many present day South Asian groups.<br />
|-<br />
| 4 || '''AHG''' (Andamanese Hunter Gatherers) || A proxy source based on Andamanese genomes representing AASI like (native South Asian hunter gatherer) ancestry in qpAdm models, used to approximate the indigenous Indian component in studies such as those by Lomous Kumar.<br />
|} <br />
<br />
== Bhumihar Genetics according to the Harvard University & David Reich ==<br />
Harvard University’s professors and 114+ genetic scientists from across the globe conducted the most extensive and detailed genetic research on Indian castes & tribes, headed by David Reich, world’s leading geneticist and the director of David Reich Lab at the Harvard University.<br />
<br />
This research, “[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aat7487 The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia]”, highlighted several points about Bhumihars as follows: <br />
<br />
=== ''(A) “Steppe ancestry in modern South Asians is primarily from males and disproportionately high in Brahmin and Bhumihar groups"'' ===<br />
[[File:Image.png|center|thumb|624x624px]]<br />
<br />
=== ''(B) “Groups that traditionally view themselves as being of priestly status (Brahmin, Pandit, and Bhumihar) tend to have a significantly higher ratio of Central_Steppe_MLBA to Indus_Periphery_Cline ancestry than other groups”'' ===<br />
[[File:Harvard1.jpg|center|thumb|624x624px]]<br />
<br />
=== (C) Strongest signals of Steppe ancestry in the Gangetic plains were found amongst the Bihari Bhumihars ===<br />
[[File:IMG 20260806 083826.jpg|center|thumb|372x372px]]<br />
<br />
=== (D) According to David Reich's genetic research, Bihari Bhumihars were found to have higher Steppe ancestry and lower AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer)-proxy Indigenous ancestry than Gangetic Plains Brahmins and Rajputs. ===<br />
In the DNA research on Indian castes by Dr. David Reich, Harvard University and world's most renowned genetic scientist, '''Bihari Bhumihars''' '''were found to have higher''' '''Steppe ancestry''' than '''Gangetic Plains Brahmins''' and '''Rajputs'''. They were also found to have lower '''Indigenous ancestry''', for which '''AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer)''' was used as a proxy, compared with Gangetic Brahmins and Rajputs. <br />
<br />
'''How to access this''' - The exact ancestry percentages are provided in David Reich's widely cited research paper on Indian populations, '''[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aat7487 "The Formation of Human Populations in South and Central Asia."]''' Specifically, they are listed in the supplementary material at the end of the paper, in the spreadsheet named '''"File (aat7487_tables1-5.xlsx),"''' under '''Table S5'''.<br />
<br />
{| style="margin:auto; text-align:center;"<br />
| [[File:G7.png|350px|thumb|'''Model 1''' Bihari Bhumihars are estimated to have '''28.3%''' Central Steppe_MLBA-related ancestry and '''21.3%''' AHG-related ancestry, compared with Brahmin_UP (26.4% Steppe, 24.8% AHG), Brahmin_Tiwari (27.0% Steppe, 23.6% AHG), Brahmin_Haryana (24.0% Steppe, 18.8% AHG), and Rajputs (23.5% Steppe, 25% AHG), respectively.]]<br />
| [[File:G4.png|350px|thumb|'''Model 2''' Bihari Bhumihars are estimated to have '''26.3%''' Central Steppe_MLBA-related ancestry and '''26.4%''' AHG-related ancestry, compared with Brahmin_UP (25.0% Steppe, 29.1% AHG), Brahmin_Tiwari (25.2% Steppe, 28.2% AHG), Brahmin_Haryana (23.1% Steppe, 25.2% AHG), and Rajputs (21.9% Steppe, 29.5% AHG), respectively.]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Bhumihars show the highest Steppe ancestry among Brahmin groups in the 2024 genetics/DNA research ==<br />
<br />
The 2024 research Distinct Positions of Genetic and Oral Histories: Perspectives from India applied qpAdm modeling to find the proportions of Steppe and Onge-related (AASI or the indigenous Indian component) ancestry and '''Bhumihars of Bihar came out to have the highest Steppe ancestry (29.0%) among the Brahmin groups, more than Brahmin Tiwari (27.9%), Saryuparin Brahmins (26.1% Steppe), and West Bengal Brahmins (22.3% Steppe)'''. Their estimated Steppe ancestry was also higher than that of the sampled Rajputs (20.8% Steppe) and Khatris (26.9% Steppe). <br />
<br />
Conversely, Bhumihars displayed the lowest Onge-related ancestry (20.7%) among the Brahmin groups in the dataset, lower than Brahmin Tiwari (23.4%), Saryupari Brahmins (22.8%), West Bengal Brahmins (30.6%), Rajputs (21.9%) but the Khatris (11.6%) have even lower Onge related ancestry than Bhumihars. '''Khatris showed nearly half the amount of Onge-related ancestry compared to Gangetic Brahmins and the Bihari Bhumihars'''.<br />
<br />
'''How to access this''' and view the spreadsheet from the research paper: <br />
<br />
Link: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.06.498959v3 '''Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India, 2024'''] <br />
<br />
Step 1) Go to the link of the research paper, scroll down and navigate to the "Supplementary Materials" section and there you'll find the "Supplementary Tables" in the form of an Excel Sheet / Spreadsheet. <br />
<br />
Step 2) Inside the spreadsheet, go to the table number 'S6' to find the spreadsheet of the ancestry '''qpAdm runs from the research posted below'''. [[File:IMG 20260806 103606 481.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.06.498959v3 Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India, 2024] |501x501px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 3 ==<br />
According to a 2020 research, Bhumihars show higher Steppe ancestry compared to other caste groups such as Kshatriyas, Kurmis, Tharus, Srivastavas, Yadavs, Nais, Thakurs, and Brahmins sampled in the research.<br />
[[File:Bmc.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12863-020-00919-2 The story of the lost twins: decoding the genetic identities of the Kumhar and Kurcha populations from the Indian subcontinent - BMC Genomics, 2020]|530x530px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 4 ==<br />
According to a 2021 research, Bihari Bhumihars have higher Eastern European Hunter Gatherer, Western Steppe and Central Steppe than other groups like Kambojs, Dogras, Haviks and Brahmins. '''This research showed results of 3 different models.'''<br />
[[File:Hgenome-1.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
[[File:Hgenome-2.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
[[File:Hgenome-3.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 5 ==<br />
According to a 2022, research Bhumihars have higher Steppe_MLBA ancestry than other groups like Kambojs, Gujjars, Nairs, Brahmins, Dogras, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, Bunts etc sampled in the research.<br />
[[File:Rxiv.jpg|center|thumb|Source: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.20.500704v1 Genetic affinities and sub-structuring in Coorg population of Southern India - 2022]|547x547px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 6 ==<br />
According to a 2023 research, Bihari Bhumihars were found to be having higher Steppe_MLBA ancestry than other groups like Kambojs, Gujjars, Nairs, Brahmins, Dogras, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, Bunts etc sampled in yet another research.<br />
[[File:Genome.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38079532/ Genetic Affinities and Adaptation of the South-West Coast Populations of India - Genome Biology and Evolution, 2023]|540x540px]]<br />
<br />
== Summary ==<br />
Genetic studies published between 2019 to 2024 suggest that the Bhumihars carry a slightly higher proportion of Bronze Age Steppe ancestry compared to other upper castes of the Indo-Gangetic plains and beyond, except for Jats, Rors and Pashtuns. <br />
<br />
Researchers suggest this pattern stems from early historical mixing, as occurred during the formation of all Indian castes, which was then preserved through centuries of endogamy.<br />
<br />
== References ==</div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=Bhumihar_Genetics&diff=885Bhumihar Genetics2026-08-06T12:47:32Z<p>Jalewar: Minor rephrasing of the Summary part</p>
<hr />
<div>On average, 31.32% of Bhumihar's ancestry is derived from Steppe_MLBA, 33.31% from AASI (Ancient Ancestral South Indian) and the remaining 35.36% of average Bhumihar ancestry is derived from IndusFarmer IVC-related / Indus Periphery ancestry. <br />
<br />
Across multiple genetic studies published between 2019 and 2024, Bhumihars consistently show higher Steppe-related ancestry and lower Indigenous (AHG/Onge-related proxy) ancestry than Brahmins and Rajputs. '''The landmark 2019 Harvard University research on South Asian caste genetics/DNA, which is so far the largest and most renowned research on the genetics of Indian castes''', reported disproportionately high Steppe ancestry in Bhumihars compared to Brahmins, Rajputs, Gangetic castes, and the non-Jat/Ror/Pashtun castes of North West India and Pakistan. <br />
<br />
The 2024 study Distinct Positions of Genetic and Oral Histories: Perspectives from India likewise identified the sampled Bihari '''Bhumihars as having the highest Steppe ancestry among the sampled Brahmin groups, placing them above the sampled Brahmin Tiwari, Saryuparin and West Bengal Brahmin groups, as well as the Rajputs'''. Independent studies published in BMC Genomics (2020), Human Genetics (2021), bioRxiv (2022) and Genome Biology and Evolution (2023) '''similarly reported comparatively higher Steppe-related and European Hunter Gatherer ancestry in Bhumihars''' than in several other sampled caste groups, including Brahmins, Rajputs, Kambojs, Dogras, Gujjars, Nairs, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs and Bunts.<br />
<br />
== Key concepts of Indian population genetics ==<br />
All mainstream South Asians are a mixture of three major ancestral components: Steppe_MLBA, IVC (Indus Valley Civilization-related) and AASI/SAHG (South Asians Hunter Gatherers also called Ancient Ancestral South Indian). Researchers use Onge or AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer) as proxies for AASI. The IVC-related ancestry itself is an earlier mixture of Iranian farmer-related ancestry and SAHG/AASI, after which Steppe_MLBA ancestry mixed with IVC-related populations to form the ancestry found in many present-day South Asians.<br />
<br />
These three ancestral components are found in almost all mainstream South Asians, but in different proportions. Every caste and community has its own typical range of these ancestry components, although these ranges often overlap with those of other castes and communities.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! # !! Component !! Mainly Associated With<br />
|-<br />
| 1 || '''Steppe_MLBA''' || Late Bronze Age steppe pastoralist populations (Sintashta/Andronovo-like), Indo-Iranian/Indo-European–linked movements into South Asia in the 2nd millennium BCE, and a substantial part of the ancestry of many Indo-Aryan–speaking and some higher-caste groups. These people are credited to have likely brought the Indo European language family into South Asia.<br />
|-<br />
| 2 || '''IVC''' (Indus-related / Indus Periphery) || People of the Indus Valley Civilization and surrounding regions, a mixture of Iran-related early farmer ancestry and South Asian hunter-gatherers, and the largest single ancestral layer feeding into both ANI and ASI-rich populations across South Asia.<br />
|-<br />
| 3 || '''AASI''' (Ancient Ancestral South Indian) || The local, native South Asian hunter gatherer ancestry that predates farming and steppe migrations and contributes substantially to many present day South Asian groups.<br />
|-<br />
| 4 || '''AHG''' (Andamanese Hunter Gatherers) || A proxy source based on Andamanese genomes representing AASI like (native South Asian hunter gatherer) ancestry in qpAdm models, used to approximate the indigenous Indian component in studies such as those by Lomous Kumar.<br />
|} <br />
<br />
== Bhumihar Genetics according to the Harvard University & David Reich ==<br />
Harvard University’s professors and 114+ genetic scientists from across the globe conducted the most extensive and detailed genetic research on Indian castes & tribes, headed by David Reich, world’s leading geneticist and the director of David Reich Lab at the Harvard University.<br />
<br />
This research, “[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aat7487 The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia]”, highlighted several points about Bhumihars as follows: <br />
<br />
=== ''(A) “Steppe ancestry in modern South Asians is primarily from males and disproportionately high in Brahmin and Bhumihar groups"'' ===<br />
[[File:Image.png|center|thumb|624x624px]]<br />
<br />
=== ''(B) “Groups that traditionally view themselves as being of priestly status (Brahmin, Pandit, and Bhumihar) tend to have a significantly higher ratio of Central_Steppe_MLBA to Indus_Periphery_Cline ancestry than other groups”'' ===<br />
[[File:Harvard1.jpg|center|thumb|624x624px]]<br />
<br />
=== (C) Strongest signals of Steppe ancestry in the Gangetic plains were found amongst the Bihari Bhumihars ===<br />
[[File:IMG 20260806 083826.jpg|center|thumb|372x372px]]<br />
<br />
=== (D) According to David Reich's genetic research, Bihari Bhumihars were found to have higher Steppe ancestry and lower AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer)-proxy Indigenous ancestry than Gangetic Plains Brahmins and Rajputs. ===<br />
In the DNA research on Indian castes by Dr. David Reich, Harvard University and world's most renowned genetic scientist, '''Bihari Bhumihars''' '''were found to have higher''' '''Steppe ancestry''' than '''Gangetic Plains Brahmins''' and '''Rajputs'''. They were also found to have lower '''Indigenous ancestry''', for which '''AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer)''' was used as a proxy, compared with Gangetic Brahmins and Rajputs. <br />
<br />
'''How to access this''' - The exact ancestry percentages are provided in David Reich's widely cited research paper on Indian populations, '''[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aat7487 "The Formation of Human Populations in South and Central Asia."]''' Specifically, they are listed in the supplementary material at the end of the paper, in the spreadsheet named '''"File (aat7487_tables1-5.xlsx),"''' under '''Table S5'''.<br />
<br />
{| style="margin:auto; text-align:center;"<br />
| [[File:G7.png|350px|thumb|'''Model 1''' Bihari Bhumihars are estimated to have '''28.3%''' Central Steppe_MLBA-related ancestry and '''21.3%''' AHG-related ancestry, compared with Brahmin_UP (26.4% Steppe, 24.8% AHG), Brahmin_Tiwari (27.0% Steppe, 23.6% AHG), Brahmin_Haryana (24.0% Steppe, 18.8% AHG), and Rajputs (23.5% Steppe, 25% AHG), respectively.]]<br />
| [[File:G4.png|350px|thumb|'''Model 2''' Bihari Bhumihars are estimated to have '''26.3%''' Central Steppe_MLBA-related ancestry and '''26.4%''' AHG-related ancestry, compared with Brahmin_UP (25.0% Steppe, 29.1% AHG), Brahmin_Tiwari (25.2% Steppe, 28.2% AHG), Brahmin_Haryana (23.1% Steppe, 25.2% AHG), and Rajputs (21.9% Steppe, 29.5% AHG), respectively.]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Bhumihars show the highest Steppe ancestry among Brahmin groups in the 2024 genetics/DNA research ==<br />
<br />
The 2024 research Distinct Positions of Genetic and Oral Histories: Perspectives from India applied qpAdm modeling to find the proportions of Steppe and Onge-related (AASI or the indigenous Indian component) ancestry and '''Bhumihars of Bihar came out to have the highest Steppe ancestry (29.0%) among the Brahmin groups, more than Brahmin Tiwari (27.9%), Saryuparin Brahmins (26.1% Steppe), and West Bengal Brahmins (22.3% Steppe)'''. Their estimated Steppe ancestry was also higher than that of the sampled Rajputs (20.8% Steppe) and Khatris (26.9% Steppe). <br />
<br />
Conversely, Bhumihars displayed the lowest Onge-related ancestry (20.7%) among the Brahmin groups in the dataset, lower than Brahmin Tiwari (23.4%), Saryupari Brahmins (22.8%), West Bengal Brahmins (30.6%), Rajputs (21.9%) but the Khatris (11.6%) have even lower Onge related ancestry than Bhumihars. '''Khatris showed nearly half the amount of Onge-related ancestry compared to Gangetic Brahmins and the Bihari Bhumihars'''.<br />
<br />
'''How to access this''' and view the spreadsheet from the research paper: <br />
<br />
Link: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.06.498959v3 '''Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India, 2024'''] <br />
<br />
Step 1) Go to the link of the research paper, scroll down and navigate to the "Supplementary Materials" section and there you'll find the "Supplementary Tables" in the form of an Excel Sheet / Spreadsheet. <br />
<br />
Step 2) Inside the spreadsheet, go to the table number 'S6' to find the spreadsheet of the ancestry '''qpAdm runs from the research posted below'''. [[File:IMG 20260806 103606 481.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.06.498959v3 Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India, 2024] |501x501px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 3 ==<br />
According to a 2020 research, Bhumihars show higher Steppe ancestry compared to other caste groups such as Kshatriyas, Kurmis, Tharus, Srivastavas, Yadavs, Nais, Thakurs, and Brahmins sampled in the research.<br />
[[File:Bmc.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12863-020-00919-2 The story of the lost twins: decoding the genetic identities of the Kumhar and Kurcha populations from the Indian subcontinent - BMC Genomics, 2020]|530x530px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 4 ==<br />
According to a 2021 research, Bihari Bhumihars have higher Eastern European Hunter Gatherer, Western Steppe and Central Steppe than other groups like Kambojs, Dogras, Haviks and Brahmins. '''This research showed results of 3 different models.'''<br />
[[File:Hgenome-1.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
[[File:Hgenome-2.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
[[File:Hgenome-3.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 5 ==<br />
According to a 2022, research Bhumihars have higher Steppe_MLBA ancestry than other groups like Kambojs, Gujjars, Nairs, Brahmins, Dogras, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, Bunts etc sampled in the research.<br />
[[File:Rxiv.jpg|center|thumb|Source: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.20.500704v1 Genetic affinities and sub-structuring in Coorg population of Southern India - 2022]|547x547px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 6 ==<br />
According to a 2023 research, Bihari Bhumihars were found to be having higher Steppe_MLBA ancestry than other groups like Kambojs, Gujjars, Nairs, Brahmins, Dogras, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, Bunts etc sampled in yet another research.<br />
[[File:Genome.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38079532/ Genetic Affinities and Adaptation of the South-West Coast Populations of India - Genome Biology and Evolution, 2023]|540x540px]]<br />
<br />
== Summary ==<br />
Genetic studies published between 2019 to 2024 suggest that the Bhumihars carry a slightly higher proportion of Bronze Age Steppe ancestry compared to other upper castes of the Indo-Gangetic plains and beyond, except for Jats, Rors and Pashtuns. <br />
<br />
Researchers suggest this pattern stems from early historical mixing like it happened with the formation of all Indian castes, which was then preserved over centuries of endogamy practiced by the community.<br />
<br />
== References ==</div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=Bhumihar_Genetics&diff=884Bhumihar Genetics2026-08-06T12:43:21Z<p>Jalewar: minor grammatical fixes</p>
<hr />
<div>On average, 31.32% of Bhumihar's ancestry is derived from Steppe_MLBA, 33.31% from AASI (Ancient Ancestral South Indian) and the remaining 35.36% of average Bhumihar ancestry is derived from IndusFarmer IVC-related / Indus Periphery ancestry. <br />
<br />
Across multiple genetic studies published between 2019 and 2024, Bhumihars consistently show higher Steppe-related ancestry and lower Indigenous (AHG/Onge-related proxy) ancestry than Brahmins and Rajputs. '''The landmark 2019 Harvard University research on South Asian caste genetics/DNA, which is so far the largest and most renowned research on the genetics of Indian castes''', reported disproportionately high Steppe ancestry in Bhumihars compared to Brahmins, Rajputs, Gangetic castes, and the non-Jat/Ror/Pashtun castes of North West India and Pakistan. <br />
<br />
The 2024 study Distinct Positions of Genetic and Oral Histories: Perspectives from India likewise identified the sampled Bihari '''Bhumihars as having the highest Steppe ancestry among the sampled Brahmin groups, placing them above the sampled Brahmin Tiwari, Saryuparin and West Bengal Brahmin groups, as well as the Rajputs'''. Independent studies published in BMC Genomics (2020), Human Genetics (2021), bioRxiv (2022) and Genome Biology and Evolution (2023) '''similarly reported comparatively higher Steppe-related and European Hunter Gatherer ancestry in Bhumihars''' than in several other sampled caste groups, including Brahmins, Rajputs, Kambojs, Dogras, Gujjars, Nairs, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs and Bunts.<br />
<br />
== Key concepts of Indian population genetics ==<br />
All mainstream South Asians are a mixture of three major ancestral components: Steppe_MLBA, IVC (Indus Valley Civilization-related) and AASI/SAHG (South Asians Hunter Gatherers also called Ancient Ancestral South Indian). Researchers use Onge or AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer) as proxies for AASI. The IVC-related ancestry itself is an earlier mixture of Iranian farmer-related ancestry and SAHG/AASI, after which Steppe_MLBA ancestry mixed with IVC-related populations to form the ancestry found in many present-day South Asians.<br />
<br />
These three ancestral components are found in almost all mainstream South Asians, but in different proportions. Every caste and community has its own typical range of these ancestry components, although these ranges often overlap with those of other castes and communities.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! # !! Component !! Mainly Associated With<br />
|-<br />
| 1 || '''Steppe_MLBA''' || Late Bronze Age steppe pastoralist populations (Sintashta/Andronovo-like), Indo-Iranian/Indo-European–linked movements into South Asia in the 2nd millennium BCE, and a substantial part of the ancestry of many Indo-Aryan–speaking and some higher-caste groups. These people are credited to have likely brought the Indo European language family into South Asia.<br />
|-<br />
| 2 || '''IVC''' (Indus-related / Indus Periphery) || People of the Indus Valley Civilization and surrounding regions, a mixture of Iran-related early farmer ancestry and South Asian hunter-gatherers, and the largest single ancestral layer feeding into both ANI and ASI-rich populations across South Asia.<br />
|-<br />
| 3 || '''AASI''' (Ancient Ancestral South Indian) || The local, native South Asian hunter gatherer ancestry that predates farming and steppe migrations and contributes substantially to many present day South Asian groups.<br />
|-<br />
| 4 || '''AHG''' (Andamanese Hunter Gatherers) || A proxy source based on Andamanese genomes representing AASI like (native South Asian hunter gatherer) ancestry in qpAdm models, used to approximate the indigenous Indian component in studies such as those by Lomous Kumar.<br />
|} <br />
<br />
== Bhumihar Genetics according to the Harvard University & David Reich ==<br />
Harvard University’s professors and 114+ genetic scientists from across the globe conducted the most extensive and detailed genetic research on Indian castes & tribes, headed by David Reich, world’s leading geneticist and the director of David Reich Lab at the Harvard University.<br />
<br />
This research, “[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aat7487 The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia]”, highlighted several points about Bhumihars as follows: <br />
<br />
=== ''(A) “Steppe ancestry in modern South Asians is primarily from males and disproportionately high in Brahmin and Bhumihar groups"'' ===<br />
[[File:Image.png|center|thumb|624x624px]]<br />
<br />
=== ''(B) “Groups that traditionally view themselves as being of priestly status (Brahmin, Pandit, and Bhumihar) tend to have a significantly higher ratio of Central_Steppe_MLBA to Indus_Periphery_Cline ancestry than other groups”'' ===<br />
[[File:Harvard1.jpg|center|thumb|624x624px]]<br />
<br />
=== (C) Strongest signals of Steppe ancestry in the Gangetic plains were found amongst the Bihari Bhumihars ===<br />
[[File:IMG 20260806 083826.jpg|center|thumb|372x372px]]<br />
<br />
=== (D) According to David Reich's genetic research, Bihari Bhumihars were found to have higher Steppe ancestry and lower AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer)-proxy Indigenous ancestry than Gangetic Plains Brahmins and Rajputs. ===<br />
In the DNA research on Indian castes by Dr. David Reich, Harvard University and world's most renowned genetic scientist, '''Bihari Bhumihars''' '''were found to have higher''' '''Steppe ancestry''' than '''Gangetic Plains Brahmins''' and '''Rajputs'''. They were also found to have lower '''Indigenous ancestry''', for which '''AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer)''' was used as a proxy, compared with Gangetic Brahmins and Rajputs. <br />
<br />
'''How to access this''' - The exact ancestry percentages are provided in David Reich's widely cited research paper on Indian populations, '''[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aat7487 "The Formation of Human Populations in South and Central Asia."]''' Specifically, they are listed in the supplementary material at the end of the paper, in the spreadsheet named '''"File (aat7487_tables1-5.xlsx),"''' under '''Table S5'''.<br />
<br />
{| style="margin:auto; text-align:center;"<br />
| [[File:G7.png|350px|thumb|'''Model 1''' Bihari Bhumihars are estimated to have '''28.3%''' Central Steppe_MLBA-related ancestry and '''21.3%''' AHG-related ancestry, compared with Brahmin_UP (26.4% Steppe, 24.8% AHG), Brahmin_Tiwari (27.0% Steppe, 23.6% AHG), Brahmin_Haryana (24.0% Steppe, 18.8% AHG), and Rajputs (23.5% Steppe, 25% AHG), respectively.]]<br />
| [[File:G4.png|350px|thumb|'''Model 2''' Bihari Bhumihars are estimated to have '''26.3%''' Central Steppe_MLBA-related ancestry and '''26.4%''' AHG-related ancestry, compared with Brahmin_UP (25.0% Steppe, 29.1% AHG), Brahmin_Tiwari (25.2% Steppe, 28.2% AHG), Brahmin_Haryana (23.1% Steppe, 25.2% AHG), and Rajputs (21.9% Steppe, 29.5% AHG), respectively.]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Bhumihars show the highest Steppe ancestry among Brahmin groups in the 2024 genetics/DNA research ==<br />
<br />
The 2024 research Distinct Positions of Genetic and Oral Histories: Perspectives from India applied qpAdm modeling to find the proportions of Steppe and Onge-related (AASI or the indigenous Indian component) ancestry and '''Bhumihars of Bihar came out to have the highest Steppe ancestry (29.0%) among the Brahmin groups, more than Brahmin Tiwari (27.9%), Saryuparin Brahmins (26.1% Steppe), and West Bengal Brahmins (22.3% Steppe)'''. Their estimated Steppe ancestry was also higher than that of the sampled Rajputs (20.8% Steppe) and Khatris (26.9% Steppe). <br />
<br />
Conversely, Bhumihars displayed the lowest Onge-related ancestry (20.7%) among the Brahmin groups in the dataset, lower than Brahmin Tiwari (23.4%), Saryupari Brahmins (22.8%), West Bengal Brahmins (30.6%), Rajputs (21.9%) but the Khatris (11.6%) have even lower Onge related ancestry than Bhumihars. '''Khatris showed nearly half the amount of Onge-related ancestry compared to Gangetic Brahmins and the Bihari Bhumihars'''.<br />
<br />
'''How to access this''' and view the spreadsheet from the research paper: <br />
<br />
Link: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.06.498959v3 '''Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India, 2024'''] <br />
<br />
Step 1) Go to the link of the research paper, scroll down and navigate to the "Supplementary Materials" section and there you'll find the "Supplementary Tables" in the form of an Excel Sheet / Spreadsheet. <br />
<br />
Step 2) Inside the spreadsheet, go to the table number 'S6' to find the spreadsheet of the ancestry '''qpAdm runs from the research posted below'''. [[File:IMG 20260806 103606 481.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.06.498959v3 Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India, 2024] |501x501px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 3 ==<br />
According to a 2020 research, Bhumihars show higher Steppe ancestry compared to other caste groups such as Kshatriyas, Kurmis, Tharus, Srivastavas, Yadavs, Nais, Thakurs, and Brahmins sampled in the research.<br />
[[File:Bmc.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12863-020-00919-2 The story of the lost twins: decoding the genetic identities of the Kumhar and Kurcha populations from the Indian subcontinent - BMC Genomics, 2020]|530x530px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 4 ==<br />
According to a 2021 research, Bihari Bhumihars have higher Eastern European Hunter Gatherer, Western Steppe and Central Steppe than other groups like Kambojs, Dogras, Haviks and Brahmins. '''This research showed results of 3 different models.'''<br />
[[File:Hgenome-1.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
[[File:Hgenome-2.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
[[File:Hgenome-3.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 5 ==<br />
According to a 2022, research Bhumihars have higher Steppe_MLBA ancestry than other groups like Kambojs, Gujjars, Nairs, Brahmins, Dogras, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, Bunts etc sampled in the research.<br />
[[File:Rxiv.jpg|center|thumb|Source: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.20.500704v1 Genetic affinities and sub-structuring in Coorg population of Southern India - 2022]|547x547px]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 6 ==<br />
According to a 2023 research, Bihari Bhumihars were found to be having higher Steppe_MLBA ancestry than other groups like Kambojs, Gujjars, Nairs, Brahmins, Dogras, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, Bunts etc sampled in yet another research.<br />
[[File:Genome.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38079532/ Genetic Affinities and Adaptation of the South-West Coast Populations of India - Genome Biology and Evolution, 2023]|540x540px]]<br />
<br />
== Summary ==<br />
Genetic studies from 2019 to 2024 suggest that the Bhumihars carry a slightly higher proportion of Bronze Age Steppe ancestry relative to other upper castes of the Indo-Gangetic plains and elsewhere, except only the Jats, Rors and Pashtuns. <br />
<br />
Researchers suggest this pattern stems from early historical mixing like it happened with the formation of all Indian castes, which was then preserved over centuries of endogamy practiced by the community.<br />
<br />
== References ==</div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=Bhumihar_Genetics&diff=875Bhumihar Genetics2026-08-06T10:02:36Z<p>Jalewar: Added header for the explanation section of genetic reasearch.</p>
<hr />
<div>On average, 31.32% of Bhumihar's ancestry is derived from Steppe_MLBA, 33.31% from AASI (Ancient Ancestral South Indian) and the remaining 35.36% of average Bhumihar ancestry is derived from IndusFarmer IVC-related / Indus Periphery ancestry. <br />
<br />
Across multiple genetic studies published between 2019 and 2024, Bhumihars consistently show higher Steppe-related ancestry and lower Indigenous (AHG/Onge-related proxy) ancestry than Brahmins and Rajputs. '''The landmark 2019 Harvard University research on South Asian caste genetics/DNA, which is so far the largest and most renowned research on the genetics of Indian castes''', reported disproportionately high Steppe ancestry in Bhumihars compared to Brahmins, Rajputs, Gangetic castes, and the non-Jat/Ror/Pashtun castes of North West India and Pakistan. <br />
<br />
The 2024 study Distinct Positions of Genetic and Oral Histories: Perspectives from India likewise identified the sampled Bihari Bhumihars as having the highest Steppe ancestry among the sampled Brahmin groups, placing them above the sampled Brahmin Tiwari, Saryuparin and West Bengal Brahmin groups, as well as the Rajputs. Independent studies published in BMC Genomics (2020), Human Genetics (2021), bioRxiv (2022) and Genome Biology and Evolution (2023) '''similarly reported comparatively higher Steppe-related and European Hunter Gatherer ancestry in Bhumihars''' than in several other sampled caste groups, including Brahmins, Rajputs, Kambojs, Dogras, Gujjars, Nairs, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs and Bunts.<br />
<br />
== Key concepts of Indian population genetics ==<br />
All mainstream South Asians are a mixture of three major ancestral components: Steppe_MLBA, IVC (Indus Valley Civilization-related) and AASI/SAHG (South Asians Hunter Gatherers also called Ancient Ancestral South Indian). Researchers use Onge or AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer) as proxies for AASI. The IVC-related ancestry itself is an earlier mixture of Iranian farmer-related ancestry and SAHG/AASI, after which Steppe_MLBA ancestry mixed with IVC-related populations to form the ancestry found in many present-day South Asians.<br />
<br />
These three ancestral components are found in almost all mainstream South Asians, but in different proportions. Every caste and community has its own typical range of these ancestry components, although these ranges often overlap with those of other castes and communities. <br />
<br />
== Bhumihar Genetics according to the Harvard University & David Reich ==<br />
Harvard University’s professors and 114+ genetic scientists from across the globe conducted the most extensive and detailed genetic research on Indian castes & tribes, headed by David Reich, world’s leading geneticist and the director of David Reich Lab at the Harvard University.<br />
<br />
This research, “[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aat7487 The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia]”, highlighted several points about Bhumihars: <br />
<br />
=== ''(A) “Steppe ancestry in modern South Asians is primarily from males and disproportionately high in Brahmin and Bhumihar groups"'' ===<br />
[[File:Image.png|center|thumb|624x624px]]<br />
<br />
=== ''(B) “Groups that traditionally view themselves as being of priestly status (Brahmin, Pandit, and Bhumihar) tend to have a significantly higher ratio of Central_Steppe_MLBA to Indus_Periphery_Cline ancestry than other groups”'' ===<br />
[[File:Harvard1.jpg|center|thumb|624x624px]]<br />
<br />
=== (C) Strongest signals of Steppe ancestry in the Gangetic plains were found amongst the Bihari Bhumihars ===<br />
[[File:IMG 20260806 083826.jpg|center|thumb|372x372px]]<br />
<br />
=== (D) According to David Reich's genetic research, Bihari Bhumihars were found to have higher Steppe ancestry and lower AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer)-proxy Indigenous ancestry than Gangetic Plains Brahmins and Rajputs. ===<br />
In the DNA research on Indian castes by Dr. David Reich, Harvard University and world's most renowned genetic scientist, '''Bihari Bhumihars''' '''were found to have higher''' '''Steppe ancestry''' than '''Gangetic Plains Brahmins''' and '''Rajputs'''. They were also found to have lower '''Indigenous ancestry''', for which '''AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer)''' was used as a proxy, compared with Gangetic Brahmins and Rajputs. <br />
<br />
'''How to access this''' - The exact ancestry percentages are provided in David Reich's widely cited research paper on Indian populations, '''[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aat7487 "The Formation of Human Populations in South and Central Asia."]''' Specifically, they are listed in the supplementary material at the end of the paper, in the spreadsheet named '''"File (aat7487_tables1-5.xlsx),"''' under '''Table S5'''.<br />
<br />
{| style="margin:auto; text-align:center;"<br />
| [[File:G7.png|350px|thumb|'''Model 1''' Bihari Bhumihars are estimated to have '''28.3%''' Central Steppe_MLBA-related ancestry and '''21.3%''' AHG-related ancestry, compared with Brahmin_UP (26.4% Steppe, 24.8% AHG), Brahmin_Tiwari (27.0% Steppe, 23.6% AHG), Brahmin_Haryana (24.0% Steppe, 18.8% AHG), and Rajputs (23.5% Steppe, 25% AHG), respectively.]]<br />
| [[File:G4.png|350px|thumb|'''Model 2''' Bihari Bhumihars are estimated to have '''26.3%''' Central Steppe_MLBA-related ancestry and '''26.4%''' AHG-related ancestry, compared with Brahmin_UP (25.0% Steppe, 29.1% AHG), Brahmin_Tiwari (25.2% Steppe, 28.2% AHG), Brahmin_Haryana (23.1% Steppe, 25.2% AHG), and Rajputs (21.9% Steppe, 29.5% AHG), respectively.]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Bhumihars show the highest Steppe ancestry among Brahmin groups in the 2024 genetics/DNA research ==<br />
<br />
The 2024 research Distinct Positions of Genetic and Oral Histories: Perspectives from India applied qpAdm modeling to find the proportions of Steppe and Onge-related (AASI or the indigenous Indian component) ancestry and '''Bhumihars of Bihar came out to have the highest Steppe ancestry (29.0%) among the Brahmin groups, more than Brahmin Tiwari (27.9%), Saryuparin Brahmins (26.1% Steppe), and West Bengal Brahmins (22.3% Steppe)'''. Their estimated Steppe ancestry was also higher than that of the sampled Rajputs (20.8% Steppe) and Khatris (26.9% Steppe). <br />
<br />
Conversely, Bhumihars displayed the lowest Onge-related ancestry (20.7%) among the Brahmin groups in the dataset, lower than Brahmin Tiwari (23.4%), Saryupari Brahmins (22.8%), West Bengal Brahmins (30.6%), Rajputs (21.9%) but the Khatris (11.6%) have even lower Onge related ancestry than Bhumihars. '''Khatris showed nearly half the amount of Onge-related ancestry compared to Gangetic Brahmins and the Bihari Bhumihars'''.<br />
<br />
'''How to access this''' and view the spreadsheet from the research paper: <br />
<br />
Link: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.06.498959v3 '''Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India, 2024'''] <br />
<br />
Step 1) Go to the link of the research paper, scroll down and navigate to the "Supplementary Materials" section and there you'll find the "Supplementary Tables" in the form of an Excel Sheet / Spreadsheet. <br />
<br />
Step 2) Inside the spreadsheet, go to the table number 'S6' to find the spreadsheet of the ancestry '''qpAdm runs from the research posted below'''. [[File:IMG 20260806 103606 481.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.06.498959v3 Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India, 2024] ]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 3 ==<br />
According to a 2020 research, Bhumihars show higher Steppe ancestry compared to other caste groups such as Kshatriyas, Kurmis, Tharus, Srivastavas, Yadavs, Nais, Thakurs, and Brahmins sampled in the research.<br />
[[File:Bmc.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12863-020-00919-2 The story of the lost twins: decoding the genetic identities of the Kumhar and Kurcha populations from the Indian subcontinent - BMC Genomics, 2020]]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 4 ==<br />
According to a 2021 research, Bihari Bhumihars have higher Eastern European Hunter Gatherer, Western Steppe and Central Steppe than other groups like Kambojs, Dogras, Haviks and Brahmins. '''This research showed results of 3 different models.'''<br />
[[File:Hgenome-1.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
[[File:Hgenome-2.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
[[File:Hgenome-3.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 5 ==<br />
According to a 2022, research Bhumihars have higher Steppe_MLBA ancestry than other groups like Kambojs, Gujjars, Nairs, Brahmins, Dogras, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, Bunts etc sampled in the research.<br />
[[File:Rxiv.jpg|center|thumb|Source: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.20.500704v1 Genetic affinities and sub-structuring in Coorg population of Southern India - 2022]]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 6 ==<br />
According to a 2023 research, Bihari Bhumihars were found to be having higher Steppe_MLBA ancestry than other groups like Kambojs, Gujjars, Nairs, Brahmins, Dogras, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, Bunts etc sampled in yet another research.<br />
[[File:Genome.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38079532/ Genetic Affinities and Adaptation of the South-West Coast Populations of India - Genome Biology and Evolution, 2023]]]<br />
<br />
== Summary ==<br />
Genetic studies from 2019 to 2024 suggest that the Bhumihars carry a slightly higher proportion of Bronze Age Steppe ancestry relative to other upper castes of the Indo-Gangetic plains and elsewhere. <br />
<br />
Researchers suggest this pattern stems from early historical mixing like it happened with the formation of all Indian castes, which was then preserved over centuries of endogamy practiced by the community.<br />
<br />
== References ==</div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=Bhumihar_Genetics&diff=874Bhumihar Genetics2026-08-06T09:58:46Z<p>Jalewar: /* Summary */ punctuation fixes in the summary section</p>
<hr />
<div>On average, 31.32% of Bhumihar's ancestry is derived from Steppe_MLBA, 33.31% from AASI (Ancient Ancestral South Indian) and the remaining 35.36% of average Bhumihar ancestry is derived from IndusFarmer IVC-related / Indus Periphery ancestry. <br />
<br />
Across multiple genetic studies published between 2019 and 2024, Bhumihars consistently show higher Steppe-related ancestry and lower Indigenous (AHG/Onge-related proxy) ancestry than Brahmins and Rajputs. '''The landmark 2019 Harvard University research on South Asian caste genetics/DNA, which is so far the largest and most renowned research on the genetics of Indian castes''', reported disproportionately high Steppe ancestry in Bhumihars compared to Brahmins, Rajputs, Gangetic castes, and the non-Jat/Ror/Pashtun castes of North West India and Pakistan. <br />
<br />
The 2024 study Distinct Positions of Genetic and Oral Histories: Perspectives from India likewise identified the sampled Bihari Bhumihars as having the highest Steppe ancestry among the sampled Brahmin groups, placing them above the sampled Brahmin Tiwari, Saryuparin and West Bengal Brahmin groups, as well as the Rajputs. Independent studies published in BMC Genomics (2020), Human Genetics (2021), bioRxiv (2022) and Genome Biology and Evolution (2023) '''similarly reported comparatively higher Steppe-related and European Hunter Gatherer ancestry in Bhumihars''' than in several other sampled caste groups, including Brahmins, Rajputs, Kambojs, Dogras, Gujjars, Nairs, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs and Bunts.<br />
<br />
All mainstream South Asians are a mixture of three major ancestral components: Steppe_MLBA, IVC (Indus Valley Civilization-related) and AASI/SAHG (South Asians Hunter Gatherers also called Ancient Ancestral South Indian). Researchers use Onge or AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer) as proxies for AASI. The IVC-related ancestry itself is an earlier mixture of Iranian farmer-related ancestry and SAHG/AASI, after which Steppe_MLBA ancestry mixed with IVC-related populations to form the ancestry found in many present-day South Asians.<br />
<br />
These three ancestral components are found in almost all mainstream South Asians, but in different proportions. Every caste and community has its own typical range of these ancestry components, although these ranges often overlap with those of other castes and communities. <br />
<br />
== Bhumihar Genetics according to the Harvard University & David Reich ==<br />
Harvard University’s professors and 114+ genetic scientists from across the globe conducted the most extensive and detailed genetic research on Indian castes & tribes, headed by David Reich, world’s leading geneticist and the director of David Reich Lab at the Harvard University.<br />
<br />
This research, “[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aat7487 The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia]”, highlighted several points about Bhumihars: <br />
<br />
=== ''(A) “Steppe ancestry in modern South Asians is primarily from males and disproportionately high in Brahmin and Bhumihar groups"'' ===<br />
[[File:Image.png|center|thumb|624x624px]]<br />
<br />
=== ''(B) “Groups that traditionally view themselves as being of priestly status (Brahmin, Pandit, and Bhumihar) tend to have a significantly higher ratio of Central_Steppe_MLBA to Indus_Periphery_Cline ancestry than other groups”'' ===<br />
[[File:Harvard1.jpg|center|thumb|624x624px]]<br />
<br />
=== (C) Strongest signals of Steppe ancestry in the Gangetic plains were found amongst the Bihari Bhumihars ===<br />
[[File:IMG 20260806 083826.jpg|center|thumb|372x372px]]<br />
<br />
=== (D) According to David Reich's genetic research, Bihari Bhumihars were found to have higher Steppe ancestry and lower AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer)-proxy Indigenous ancestry than Gangetic Plains Brahmins and Rajputs. ===<br />
In the DNA research on Indian castes by Dr. David Reich, Harvard University and world's most renowned genetic scientist, '''Bihari Bhumihars''' '''were found to have higher''' '''Steppe ancestry''' than '''Gangetic Plains Brahmins''' and '''Rajputs'''. They were also found to have lower '''Indigenous ancestry''', for which '''AHG (Andamanese Hunter-Gatherer)''' was used as a proxy, compared with Gangetic Brahmins and Rajputs. <br />
<br />
'''How to access this''' - The exact ancestry percentages are provided in David Reich's widely cited research paper on Indian populations, '''[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aat7487 "The Formation of Human Populations in South and Central Asia."]''' Specifically, they are listed in the supplementary material at the end of the paper, in the spreadsheet named '''"File (aat7487_tables1-5.xlsx),"''' under '''Table S5'''.<br />
<br />
{| style="margin:auto; text-align:center;"<br />
| [[File:G7.png|350px|thumb|'''Model 1''' Bihari Bhumihars are estimated to have '''28.3%''' Central Steppe_MLBA-related ancestry and '''21.3%''' AHG-related ancestry, compared with Brahmin_UP (26.4% Steppe, 24.8% AHG), Brahmin_Tiwari (27.0% Steppe, 23.6% AHG), Brahmin_Haryana (24.0% Steppe, 18.8% AHG), and Rajputs (23.5% Steppe, 25% AHG), respectively.]]<br />
| [[File:G4.png|350px|thumb|'''Model 2''' Bihari Bhumihars are estimated to have '''26.3%''' Central Steppe_MLBA-related ancestry and '''26.4%''' AHG-related ancestry, compared with Brahmin_UP (25.0% Steppe, 29.1% AHG), Brahmin_Tiwari (25.2% Steppe, 28.2% AHG), Brahmin_Haryana (23.1% Steppe, 25.2% AHG), and Rajputs (21.9% Steppe, 29.5% AHG), respectively.]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Bhumihars show the highest Steppe ancestry among Brahmin groups in the 2024 genetics/DNA research ==<br />
<br />
The 2024 research Distinct Positions of Genetic and Oral Histories: Perspectives from India applied qpAdm modeling to find the proportions of Steppe and Onge-related (AASI or the indigenous Indian component) ancestry and '''Bhumihars of Bihar came out to have the highest Steppe ancestry (29.0%) among the Brahmin groups, more than Brahmin Tiwari (27.9%), Saryuparin Brahmins (26.1% Steppe), and West Bengal Brahmins (22.3% Steppe)'''. Their estimated Steppe ancestry was also higher than that of the sampled Rajputs (20.8% Steppe) and Khatris (26.9% Steppe). <br />
<br />
Conversely, Bhumihars displayed the lowest Onge-related ancestry (20.7%) among the Brahmin groups in the dataset, lower than Brahmin Tiwari (23.4%), Saryupari Brahmins (22.8%), West Bengal Brahmins (30.6%), Rajputs (21.9%) but the Khatris (11.6%) have even lower Onge related ancestry than Bhumihars. '''Khatris showed nearly half the amount of Onge-related ancestry compared to Gangetic Brahmins and the Bihari Bhumihars'''.<br />
<br />
'''How to access this''' and view the spreadsheet from the research paper: <br />
<br />
Link: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.06.498959v3 '''Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India, 2024'''] <br />
<br />
Step 1) Go to the link of the research paper, scroll down and navigate to the "Supplementary Materials" section and there you'll find the "Supplementary Tables" in the form of an Excel Sheet / Spreadsheet. <br />
<br />
Step 2) Inside the spreadsheet, go to the table number 'S6' to find the spreadsheet of the ancestry '''qpAdm runs from the research posted below'''. [[File:IMG 20260806 103606 481.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.06.498959v3 Distinct positions of genetic and oral histories: Perspectives from India, 2024] ]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 3 ==<br />
According to a 2020 research, Bhumihars show higher Steppe ancestry compared to other caste groups such as Kshatriyas, Kurmis, Tharus, Srivastavas, Yadavs, Nais, Thakurs, and Brahmins sampled in the research.<br />
[[File:Bmc.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12863-020-00919-2 The story of the lost twins: decoding the genetic identities of the Kumhar and Kurcha populations from the Indian subcontinent - BMC Genomics, 2020]]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 4 ==<br />
According to a 2021 research, Bihari Bhumihars have higher Eastern European Hunter Gatherer, Western Steppe and Central Steppe than other groups like Kambojs, Dogras, Haviks and Brahmins. '''This research showed results of 3 different models.'''<br />
[[File:Hgenome-1.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
[[File:Hgenome-2.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
[[File:Hgenome-3.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34424406/ Dissecting the genetic history of the Roman Catholic populations of West Coast India - Human Genetics, 2021]]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 5 ==<br />
According to a 2022, research Bhumihars have higher Steppe_MLBA ancestry than other groups like Kambojs, Gujjars, Nairs, Brahmins, Dogras, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, Bunts etc sampled in the research.<br />
[[File:Rxiv.jpg|center|thumb|Source: [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.20.500704v1 Genetic affinities and sub-structuring in Coorg population of Southern India - 2022]]]<br />
<br />
== Research Paper 6 ==<br />
According to a 2023 research, Bihari Bhumihars were found to be having higher Steppe_MLBA ancestry than other groups like Kambojs, Gujjars, Nairs, Brahmins, Dogras, Srivastavas, Reddys, Yadavs, Bunts etc sampled in yet another research.<br />
[[File:Genome.png|center|thumb|Source: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38079532/ Genetic Affinities and Adaptation of the South-West Coast Populations of India - Genome Biology and Evolution, 2023]]]<br />
<br />
== Summary ==<br />
Genetic studies from 2019 to 2024 suggest that the Bhumihars carry a slightly higher proportion of Bronze Age Steppe ancestry relative to other upper castes of the Indo-Gangetic plains and elsewhere. <br />
<br />
Researchers suggest this pattern stems from early historical mixing like it happened with the formation of all Indian castes, which was then preserved over centuries of endogamy practiced by the community.<br />
<br />
== References ==</div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=Hathwa_Raj&diff=716Hathwa Raj2026-08-04T09:50:31Z<p>Jalewar: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox<br />
| title = Hathwa Raj<br />
| image = Hathwa_Raj_Palace_Facade.jpg<br />
| caption = The Hathwa Raj Palace in Gopalganj, Bihar<br />
| label1 = Entity Type<br />
| data1 = Zamindari Estate<br />
| label2 = State<br />
| data2 = Bihar, India<br />
| label3 = Division<br />
| data3 = Saran division<br />
| label4 = Capital / Seat<br />
| data4 = Hathwa (historically Baghoch, Kalyanpur, Huseypur)<br />
| label5 = Dynasty<br />
| data5 = Baghochia Bhumihar<br />
| label6 = Founded<br />
| data6 = 6th century BCE (legendary)<br />
| label7 = Abolished<br />
| data7 = 1952 (Zamindari Abolition Act)<br />
| label8 = Total Area<br />
| data8 = 800 sq mi (2072 sq km or 512,000 acres)<br />
| label9 = Population<br />
| data9 = 391,000 (pre independence)<br />
| label10 = Revenue <br />
| data10 = 17,30,000<br />
| label11 = Gotra<br />
| data11 = Vatsa<br />
}}<br />
The '''Hathwa Raj''' (also known as the Hathua Estate or Kalyanpur chieftaincy) was one of the most prominent, wealthy, and historically significant [[zamindari]] estates in the Saran division of Bihar, India.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=kUueDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT250&dq=Hathwa+Raj&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjwpeb52oGWAxX9d2wGHQjqFWkQ6AF6BAgQEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false Ansari, T. H. (2019). Mughal Administration and the Zamindars of Bihar. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis.]</ref> Functioning as a semi-autonomous chieftaincy during the Mughal era and later as a premier zamindari under British colonial administration, the estate is renowned for its vast wealth, its deep genealogical history, and its socio-cultural impact on the region.<br />
<br />
== Origins, Lineage, and Family Background ==<br />
The Hathwa Raj was governed by the '''Baghochia dynasty''', a lineage of [https://babhanbhumihar.com Bhumihars] belonging to the [https://www.babhanbhumihar.com/mools Vats gotra]. Recognized as one of the oldest aristocratic families in Bihar, the dynasty claims a history that stretches back over two millennia.<br />
<br />
* '''Legendary Foundation:''' Family traditions trace the estate's origins to '''Raja Bir Sen''' in the 6th century BCE, who is said to have received land after participating in a military campaign for the Kosala kingdom, eventually displacing local Chero tribes.<br />
* '''Patronymic Evolution:''' The royal house documented over 106 generations of rulers. Their patronymic title shifted over the centuries to reflect changing political alliances and imperial grants: starting as "Sen", changing to "Sinha" by the 16th descent, "Mal" by the 83rd, and finally "Sahi" (or Shahi) from the 87th generation onward.<br />
* '''Capitals and Seats of Power:''' Before settling in Hathwa, the seats of the Raj transitioned through several strategic locations, including Baghoch, Kalyanpur, Balchowra, and Huseypur.<br />
<br />
== Martial History and Domination in the Locality<ref>content://com.android.providers.downloads.documents/document/5802</ref> ==<br />
The military history of Hathwa Raj encompasses several centuries of territorial expansion, imperial campaign service under the Mughal Empire, regional rivalries in North Bihar, and armed opposition to the East India Company.<br />
<br />
=== Mughal era (16th–17th centuries) ===<br />
==== Kalyan Mal ====<br />
Around 1565, '''Maharaja Kalyan Mal''' (86th ruler) led a force of 5,000 infantry and 100 cavalry under Mughal Emperor Akbar to suppress a major rebellion in Eastern Bihar. Following his victory, Akbar awarded him the title of ''Maharaja'' and administrative authority over the region. Kalyan Mal established a fortified stronghold at Kalyanpur (in present-day Gopalganj district).<br />
<br />
==== Kshem Karan Sahi ====<br />
His successor, '''Maharaja Kshem Karan Sahi''' (87th ruler), commanded troops for Emperor Jahangir to suppress regional revolts. In recognition of his service, Jahangir conferred upon him the title ''Bahadur Shahi'' and the ''Mahi Maratib'' (Order of the Fish), an imperial honorific emblem. Kshem Karan relocated the capital to Hussepur, where he constructed a large fort.<br />
<br />
==== Jubaraj Sahi (Yuvaraj Shahi) ====<br />
During his reign from 1714 to 1737, '''Maharaja Jubaraj Sahi''' (95th ruler) expanded the estate's boundaries by capturing the Sipah pargana from an autonomous Afghan chieftain in North Bihar.<br />
<br />
=== Regional conflicts (18th century) ===<br />
==== Subjugation of Majhauli Raj ====<br />
'''Maharaja Sardar Sahi''' (98th ruler, r. 1744–1747) allied with Alivardi Khan, the Nawab of Bengal, in military operations. Sardar Sahi launched an offensive against the neighboring Majhauli Raj, destroying their fort (''garh''). As part of the peace terms, Majhauli rulers were prohibited from displaying their royal banners (''nishans'') and war drums (''dunkas'').<br />
<br />
=== Anti-colonial resistance (1747–1789) ===<br />
==== Fateh Sahi's rebellion ====<br />
'''Maharaja Fateh Bahadur Shahi (Fateh Sahi)''' (99th ruler, r. 1747–1789) actively resisted British East India Company rule in Bihar:<br />
* '''Alliance with Mir Qasim''': Provided military support to Mir Qasim leading up to the Battle of Buxar (1764).<br />
* '''Rejection of Diwani rights''': Strongly opposed the 1765 Treaty of Allahabad, which granted the East India Company ''Diwani'' (tax collection) rights over Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.<br />
* '''Guerrilla warfare''': Formed an alliance with the Raja of [[Bettiah Raj]] to wage guerrilla warfare against British forces.<br />
* '''Execution of Basant Sahi (1775)''': When the East India Company attempted to install his cousin, Babu Basant Sahi, as ruler in exchange for capturing Fateh Bahadur Shahi, Fateh Shahi launched a surprise attack at Yadavpur and killed Basant Sahi.<br />
* '''Establishment of Tamkuhi State''': Pushed out of Hussepur, Maharaja Fateh Bahadur Shahi established [[Tamkuhi Raj|Tamkuhi State]] in the Kingdom of Oudh (modern Deoria district).<br />
* '''Abdication''': In 1789, after more than two decades of armed insurgency, Fateh Sahi handed administration to his sons and became a ''Sanyasi''.<br />
<br />
=== British consolidation (19th century) ===<br />
==== Chattardhari Sahi ====<br />
'''Maharaja Chattardhari Sahi''' (100th ruler, r. 1789–1858) restored formal administration under the Decennial Settlement of 1790 by Lord Cornwallis. <br />
=== Summary of military campaigns ===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Ruler !! Reign / Era !! Major Campaign / Event !! Military & Territorial Outcome<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Kalyan Mal''' || c. 1565 || Eastern Bihar Campaign (Mughal-Akbar) || Granted title of ''Maharaja''; constructed Kalyanpur Fort.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Kshem Karan Sahi''' || 17th c. || Regional Pacification (Mughal-Jahangir) || Conferred ''Bahadur Shahi'' title and ''Mahi Maratib''; constructed Hussepur Fort.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Juvaraj Sahi''' || 1714–1737 || Sipah Pargana Campaign || Defeated Afghan chief; annexed Sipah pargana.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Sardar Sahi''' || 1744–1747 || Campaign against Majhauli Raj || Destroyed Majhauli Fort; banned rival military emblems (''nishans'' & ''dunkas'').<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Fateh Sahi''' || 1747–1789 || Anti-EIC Insurgency & Battle of Buxar || Waged 20-year guerrilla war; killed Basant Sahi (1775); founded Tamkuhi State.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Geography, Extent, and Economic Power ==<br />
At its zenith, the Hathwa Raj was a colossal administrative and economic entity. It was situated in the alluvial plains of North Bihar, bounded naturally by the Gandak River to the north, the Gogra River to the east, and the Ganges River to the south. <br />
[[File:Photo 2026-07-30 19-55-24.jpg|thumb|Parganas controlled by Hathwa Raj in Saran Division]] <br />
<br />
The estate's physical and economic baseline at its peak is outlined below:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="width:70%;"<br />
|+ Hathwa Raj Estate Baseline<br />
|-<br />
! Parameter !! Value / Scope !! Description<br />
|-<br />
| '''Territorial Extent''' || 800 sq. miles or 2080 sq. km<ref name=":0">[https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Bihar_and_Orissa_District_Gazeteers_Sara/hsQVAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&b] Bihar and Orissa District Gazeteers: Saran by Lewis Sydney Steward O'Malley</ref>|| Encompassed major parts of modern [[Gopalganj district|Gopalganj]], [[Siwan district|Siwan]], and [[Saran district|Chhapra]] districts.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Administrative Scope''' || 1,450 villages<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj by Anand Yang] </ref>|| Number of revenue-generating villages under direct proprietary right.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Demographics''' || 391,000+ subjects<ref>[https://archive.org/details/pli.kerala.rare.11274 Modern History of the Indian Chiefs by Ghose, Lokenath]</ref>|| Total recorded tenant population prior to the estate's dissolution.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Annual Revenue''' || Approx. 1,730,000 Rupees<ref name=":0" />|| Generated through agrarian tax on [[Ryot|ryots]], market tolls, and trade tariffs.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Chronology and Political Milestones ==<br />
The political survival of the Hathwa Raj relied on a delicate balance of diplomacy, military aid, and occasional rebellion against paramount imperial powers.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:100%; text-align:left;"<br />
|+ Key Historical Milestones<br />
|-<br />
! Year / Era !! Ruler !! Event / Significance<br />
|-<br />
| 6th Century BCE || Raja Bir Sen || Defeated the local [[Chero tribe|Chero]] chieftains; established the initial kingdom under the patronymic title "Sen".<ref>[https://archive.org/details/historyofhutwara00dutt/page/178/mode/2up G.N. Dutt - History of the Hutwa Raj] p. 179</ref><br />
|-<br />
| 1539 || Raja Jay Mal || Provided military asylum, food, and provisions to Mughal Emperor [[Humayun]] after the [[Battle of Chausa]].<ref>[https://archive.org/details/historyofhutwara00dutt/page/178/mode/2up] p. 181<br />
<br />
In some places, it's mentioned as battle of Buxar (1539)</ref><br />
|-<br />
| c. 1565 || Raja Kalyan Mal || Subdued regional rebellions in Eastern Bihar for Emperor [[Akbar]]; officially granted the hereditary title of '''Raja''' and shifted the capital to Kalyanpur (the capital seat of Kalyanpur was named after him).<ref>[https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Comprehensive_History_of_Bihar_pt_2_1987 <nowiki>Comprehensive History of Bihar: pt. 2. [1987]</nowiki>] p. 302, 324</ref><br />
|-<br />
| Early 17th C. || Maharaja Khemkaran Sahi Bahadur || Granted the honorific '''Maharaja Bahadur''' by Emperor [[Jahangir]] for active military assistance; established a strategic fort at Husainpur.<ref name=":3">[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.150766 The Golden Book Of India by Sir Roper Lethbridge]</ref><br />
|-<br />
| 1767 || Raja Fateh Sahi || Staged a fierce, decades-long guerrilla rebellion against the [[East India Company]] following the [[Treaty of Allahabad]].<ref name=":3" /><br />
|-<br />
| 1874–1896 || Maharaja Sir Kishen Pratap Sahi Bahadur || Led widespread socio-economic modernization, infrastructural changes, and famine relief programs across the estate.<br />
|-<br />
| 1952 || N/A || Official dissolution of the estate's administrative power via the Bihar Zamindari Abolition Act.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Civil and Cultural Contributions ==<br />
[[File:Thawe_Durga_Mandir_Outer_View.jpg|thumb|right|240px|The Thawe Durga Mandir in Gopalganj, an enduring spiritual landmark patronized by the Hathwa royal house.]]<br />
[[File:Rajendra-Prasad-Hathwa-Raj.jpg|thumb|Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the first president of India with members of the Hathwa royal family, Rajendra Prasad’s great uncle, Chaudhur Lal served as the Deewan of the Hathwa Raj.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books/about/Autobiography.html?id=3FdeGtdlinoC&printsec=frontcover&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_entity&hl=en&gl=IN&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Prasad, Rajendra. ''Autobiography''. Penguin Books India, 2010, p. 1. ISBN 978-0-14-306881-5.]</ref>]]<br />
The rulers of Hathwa acted as heavy patrons of religion, education, and public infrastructure, transforming their capital into a thriving socio-cultural hub. <br />
<br />
=== Educational Contibution ===<br />
Hathwa Raj was known for its notable secular contributions, especially in education and public infrastructure during the British period. The estate supported both traditional Indian and Western-style education. It sponsored numerous schools across its territories, including a Hathwa school and a Sanskrit ''pathshala'' in Machhagar Patti Jagdish village, along with two upper primary and nine lower primary schools. Historical records indicate that up to '''forty-four schools''' received full or partial funding from the estate. One of its flagship institutions was the '''Hathwa Eden School''' in Ratanchak, named after Lieutenant-Governor Sir Ashley Eden, whose foundation stone was laid in 1879.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj] p. 122 </ref> Additionally, the Maharani of Hathwa made a significant contribution of Rs. 15,600 toward the construction of a hostel for Hindu students at Patna College. During the same period, she also undertook several educational infrastructure projects, including the completion of hostel and associated buildings for the Northbrook School at Muzaffarpur and the construction of a hostel, out-houses, and residential quarters for the sons of zamindars and wards attached to the Zila School at Ranchi.<ref>[https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.05678 Report on the administration Bihar and Orissa 1914-1915] </ref> The Maharani also contributed Rs. 40,000 to the Ranchi College Fund.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj: Agrarian Relations in Colonial India, Saran District, 1793-1920] by Anand Yang, p. 123</ref> These initiatives demonstrated the Hathwa Raj’s active role in promoting educational access and supporting public welfare projects in the region.<br />
<br />
=== Infrastructure & Health ===<br />
Under Maharaja Sir Kishen Pratap Sahi Bahadur, the administration funded the construction of the Hathwa Eden School, the Raj dispensary, a post office, and the Durga Medical Hall. <br />
<br />
=== Commercial Hub ===<br />
By the 19th century, Hathwa was noted for its extensive bazaars and bi-weekly markets, attracting traders from across the province and facilitating regional trade. <br />
<br />
=== Religious Patronage ===<br />
Hathwa Raj was noted for its patronage of Hindu religious institutions and charitable works. <br />
<br />
* '''Gopal Mandir -''' The estate's principal religious establishment was the Gopal Mandir at Hathwa, housing the images of Radha and Krishna, which was regarded as the '''largest temple in Bihar''' and was reportedly constructed at a cost of '''four lakh rupees'''.<ref name=":1">[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj: Agrarian Relations in Colonial India, Saran District, 1793-1920 By Anand A. Yang] p. 122</ref> <br />
<br />
* '''[[Thawe Mandir]] -''' The royal family are ardent devotees of Goddess Durga. An earlier ruler, '''Maharaja Yuvraj Shahi Bahadur''', is said to have '''constructed the temple''' after seeing the goddess in a dream while resting in a jungle. According to history and tradition, this vision helped him defeat his arch-rival, the Afghan zamindar Kabul Muhammad. The [[Thawe Mandir]] remains a testament of their religious influence. The annual Durga Puja at Thawe was a grand state event, characterized by the Maharaja holding an annual ''durbar'' at the Sheesh Mahal, followed by a procession via elephant and buggy for ''darshan'' on Vijayadashami.<ref>[https://www.thawemandir.org/about/mythology thawemandir.org]</ref><ref name=":1" /> <ref>[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.150766/page/n197/mode/2up THE GOLDEN BOOK OF INDI] p. 174</ref><br />
<br />
* '''''Shivalaya'' at Banaras''' and various other temples and religious ceremonies were sponsored by Hathwa Raj family.<ref name=":1" /><br />
<br />
* '''Dussera Celebration -''' Dussehra (Dashara) was the most important annual ceremonial festival of the Hathwa Raj estate and served both as a religious observance and a public affirmation of the authority of the Hathwa Maharaja. It marked the beginning of the agricultural year, during which tenants visited the Hathwa palace to offer presents and convey their congratulations to the ruler. The Maharaja granted a formal darshan (audience) to his subjects, while European guests were entertained with receptions, elephant processions, and fireworks.<ref name=":2">[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false Between Raja and Raiyat: The Structures of Control in the Great Estate of Hathwa] p. 115</ref> The festival also reinforced the political and social hierarchy of the estate. Village headmen (''jeth-raiyats'') were ceremonially presented with turbans as symbols of their authority, while the Maharaja distributed cash gifts, generally four to eight rupees, to the headmen and sweets to the villagers. These rituals affirmed the Hathwa Raj's leadership, strengthened ties between the ruler and his tenants, and symbolized the unity of the estate under the Raja's authority. The celebrations thus combined religious devotion with public displays of loyalty, patronage, and royal prestige. <ref name=":2" /><ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj: Agrarian Relations in Colonial India, Saran District, 1793-1920]<br />
<br />
[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false By Anand A. Yang] p. 116</ref><ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false Between Raja and Raiyat: The Structures of Control in the Great Estate of Hathwa] p. 137</ref> In the present day, although the grandeur of the former zamindari-era celebrations has diminished, the Hathwa Raj family continues to observe several traditional customs. According to Maharaja Bahadur Sri Mrigendra Pratap Sahi, family members still gather at Hathwa during Durga Puja to worship their kuldevi, Thawe Maiyya, and remain there until Diwali. Ceremonial traditions such as the Maharaja's procession in a horse-drawn buggy to the Gopal Mandir, the annual durbar at the Sheesh Mahal, and the elephant ride for Vijayadashami darshan have been discontinued. However, the family continues the worship of the royal armoury ('''''Shastra Puja'''''), followed by a ceremonial guard of honour, and maintains the traditional practice of buffalo and goat sacrifice during the Sandhi Puja.<ref>[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/ex-zamindars-tryst-with-durga-puja/articleshow/16908429.cms Reminiscing the grandeur of yore] TOI article</ref><br />
<br />
=== Social Reform ===<br />
Behind the scenes, the internal hierarchy of the estate showed flashes of progressive reform. For instance, in the early 20th century, Binodini Dutt, the wife of the estate's Dewan (personal secretary), was heavily influenced by reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar. She actively aided in state affairs and vehemently protected young widows within the estate from oppressive traditional customs.<br />
<br />
== Heritage and Landmarks Gallery ==<br />
[[File:Maharaja Mrigendra Pratap Shahi Bahadur.jpg|thumb|Maharaja Mrigendra Pratap Shahi, the current titular chief of Hathwa Raj with Maharani sahiba Punam Shahi.]]<br />
<br />
== Current State and Legacy ==<br />
Like all princely estates and zamindaris in India, the legal and political authority of the Hathwa Raj ceased with the post-independence abolition of the Zamindari system in 1952. <br />
<br />
Today, the Hathwa Raj exists primarily as a rich cultural legacy. Its physical remnants—the residential palaces, the Gopal Mandir, and administrative ruins—still stand in the [[Gopalganj district]] as heritage landmarks. The royal family continues to maintain certain private traditions and religious rites, particularly the ritual animal sacrifices and ceremonies during the Thawe Durga Puja. To the local population, the Hathwa Raj remains a defining pillar of regional identity, anchoring the history of North Bihar to an era of ancient lineages and profound architectural heritage.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references responsive="2" /></div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=Hathwa_Raj&diff=714Hathwa Raj2026-08-04T09:48:49Z<p>Jalewar: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox<br />
| title = Hathwa Raj<br />
| image = Hathwa_Raj_Palace_Facade.jpg<br />
| caption = The Hathwa Raj Palace in Gopalganj, Bihar<br />
| label1 = Entity Type<br />
| data1 = Zamindari Estate<br />
| label2 = State<br />
| data2 = Bihar, India<br />
| label3 = Division<br />
| data3 = Saran division<br />
| label4 = Capital / Seat<br />
| data4 = Hathwa (historically Baghoch, Kalyanpur, Huseypur)<br />
| label5 = Dynasty<br />
| data5 = Baghochia Bhumihar<br />
| label6 = Founded<br />
| data6 = 6th century BCE (legendary)<br />
| label7 = Abolished<br />
| data7 = 1952 (Zamindari Abolition Act)<br />
| label8 = Total Area<br />
| data8 = 800 sq mi (2072 sq km or 512,000 acres)<br />
| label9 = Population<br />
| data9 = 391,000 (pre independence)<br />
| label10 = Revenue <br />
| data10 = 17,30,000<br />
| label11 = Gotra<br />
| data11 = Vatsa<br />
}}<br />
The '''Hathwa Raj''' (also known as the Hathua Estate or Kalyanpur chieftaincy) was one of the most prominent, wealthy, and historically significant [[zamindari]] estates in the Saran division of Bihar, India.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=kUueDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT250&dq=Hathwa+Raj&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjwpeb52oGWAxX9d2wGHQjqFWkQ6AF6BAgQEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false Ansari, T. H. (2019). Mughal Administration and the Zamindars of Bihar. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis.]</ref> Functioning as a semi-autonomous chieftaincy during the Mughal era and later as a premier zamindari under British colonial administration, the estate is renowned for its vast wealth, its deep genealogical history, and its socio-cultural impact on the region.<br />
<br />
== Origins, Lineage, and Family Background ==<br />
The Hathwa Raj was governed by the '''Baghochia dynasty''', a lineage of [https://babhanbhumihar.com Bhumihars] belonging to the [[Vatsa|Vats gotra]]. Recognized as one of the oldest aristocratic families in Bihar, the dynasty claims a history that stretches back over two millennia.<br />
<br />
* '''Legendary Foundation:''' Family traditions trace the estate's origins to '''Raja Bir Sen''' in the 6th century BCE, who is said to have received land after participating in a military campaign for the Kosala kingdom, eventually displacing local Chero tribes.<br />
* '''Patronymic Evolution:''' The royal house documented over 106 generations of rulers. Their patronymic title shifted over the centuries to reflect changing political alliances and imperial grants: starting as "Sen", changing to "Sinha" by the 16th descent, "Mal" by the 83rd, and finally "Sahi" (or Shahi) from the 87th generation onward.<br />
* '''Capitals and Seats of Power:''' Before settling in Hathwa, the seats of the Raj transitioned through several strategic locations, including Baghoch, Kalyanpur, Balchowra, and Huseypur.<br />
<br />
== Martial History and Domination in the Locality<ref>content://com.android.providers.downloads.documents/document/5802</ref> ==<br />
The military history of Hathwa Raj encompasses several centuries of territorial expansion, imperial campaign service under the Mughal Empire, regional rivalries in North Bihar, and armed opposition to the East India Company.<br />
<br />
=== Mughal era (16th–17th centuries) ===<br />
==== Kalyan Mal ====<br />
Around 1565, '''Maharaja Kalyan Mal''' (86th ruler) led a force of 5,000 infantry and 100 cavalry under Mughal Emperor Akbar to suppress a major rebellion in Eastern Bihar. Following his victory, Akbar awarded him the title of ''Maharaja'' and administrative authority over the region. Kalyan Mal established a fortified stronghold at Kalyanpur (in present-day Gopalganj district).<br />
<br />
==== Kshem Karan Sahi ====<br />
His successor, '''Maharaja Kshem Karan Sahi''' (87th ruler), commanded troops for Emperor Jahangir to suppress regional revolts. In recognition of his service, Jahangir conferred upon him the title ''Bahadur Shahi'' and the ''Mahi Maratib'' (Order of the Fish), an imperial honorific emblem. Kshem Karan relocated the capital to Hussepur, where he constructed a large fort.<br />
<br />
==== Jubaraj Sahi (Yuvaraj Shahi) ====<br />
During his reign from 1714 to 1737, '''Maharaja Jubaraj Sahi''' (95th ruler) expanded the estate's boundaries by capturing the Sipah pargana from an autonomous Afghan chieftain in North Bihar.<br />
<br />
=== Regional conflicts (18th century) ===<br />
==== Subjugation of Majhauli Raj ====<br />
'''Maharaja Sardar Sahi''' (98th ruler, r. 1744–1747) allied with Alivardi Khan, the Nawab of Bengal, in military operations. Sardar Sahi launched an offensive against the neighboring Majhauli Raj, destroying their fort (''garh''). As part of the peace terms, Majhauli rulers were prohibited from displaying their royal banners (''nishans'') and war drums (''dunkas'').<br />
<br />
=== Anti-colonial resistance (1747–1789) ===<br />
==== Fateh Sahi's rebellion ====<br />
'''Maharaja Fateh Bahadur Shahi (Fateh Sahi)''' (99th ruler, r. 1747–1789) actively resisted British East India Company rule in Bihar:<br />
* '''Alliance with Mir Qasim''': Provided military support to Mir Qasim leading up to the Battle of Buxar (1764).<br />
* '''Rejection of Diwani rights''': Strongly opposed the 1765 Treaty of Allahabad, which granted the East India Company ''Diwani'' (tax collection) rights over Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.<br />
* '''Guerrilla warfare''': Formed an alliance with the Raja of [[Bettiah Raj]] to wage guerrilla warfare against British forces.<br />
* '''Execution of Basant Sahi (1775)''': When the East India Company attempted to install his cousin, Babu Basant Sahi, as ruler in exchange for capturing Fateh Bahadur Shahi, Fateh Shahi launched a surprise attack at Yadavpur and killed Basant Sahi.<br />
* '''Establishment of Tamkuhi State''': Pushed out of Hussepur, Maharaja Fateh Bahadur Shahi established [[Tamkuhi Raj|Tamkuhi State]] in the Kingdom of Oudh (modern Deoria district).<br />
* '''Abdication''': In 1789, after more than two decades of armed insurgency, Fateh Sahi handed administration to his sons and became a ''Sanyasi''.<br />
<br />
=== British consolidation (19th century) ===<br />
==== Chattardhari Sahi ====<br />
'''Maharaja Chattardhari Sahi''' (100th ruler, r. 1789–1858) restored formal administration under the Decennial Settlement of 1790 by Lord Cornwallis. <br />
=== Summary of military campaigns ===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Ruler !! Reign / Era !! Major Campaign / Event !! Military & Territorial Outcome<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Kalyan Mal''' || c. 1565 || Eastern Bihar Campaign (Mughal-Akbar) || Granted title of ''Maharaja''; constructed Kalyanpur Fort.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Kshem Karan Sahi''' || 17th c. || Regional Pacification (Mughal-Jahangir) || Conferred ''Bahadur Shahi'' title and ''Mahi Maratib''; constructed Hussepur Fort.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Juvaraj Sahi''' || 1714–1737 || Sipah Pargana Campaign || Defeated Afghan chief; annexed Sipah pargana.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Sardar Sahi''' || 1744–1747 || Campaign against Majhauli Raj || Destroyed Majhauli Fort; banned rival military emblems (''nishans'' & ''dunkas'').<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Fateh Sahi''' || 1747–1789 || Anti-EIC Insurgency & Battle of Buxar || Waged 20-year guerrilla war; killed Basant Sahi (1775); founded Tamkuhi State.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Geography, Extent, and Economic Power ==<br />
At its zenith, the Hathwa Raj was a colossal administrative and economic entity. It was situated in the alluvial plains of North Bihar, bounded naturally by the Gandak River to the north, the Gogra River to the east, and the Ganges River to the south. <br />
[[File:Photo 2026-07-30 19-55-24.jpg|thumb|Parganas controlled by Hathwa Raj in Saran Division]] <br />
<br />
The estate's physical and economic baseline at its peak is outlined below:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="width:70%;"<br />
|+ Hathwa Raj Estate Baseline<br />
|-<br />
! Parameter !! Value / Scope !! Description<br />
|-<br />
| '''Territorial Extent''' || 800 sq. miles or 2080 sq. km<ref name=":0">[https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Bihar_and_Orissa_District_Gazeteers_Sara/hsQVAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&b] Bihar and Orissa District Gazeteers: Saran by Lewis Sydney Steward O'Malley</ref>|| Encompassed major parts of modern [[Gopalganj district|Gopalganj]], [[Siwan district|Siwan]], and [[Saran district|Chhapra]] districts.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Administrative Scope''' || 1,450 villages<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj by Anand Yang] </ref>|| Number of revenue-generating villages under direct proprietary right.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Demographics''' || 391,000+ subjects<ref>[https://archive.org/details/pli.kerala.rare.11274 Modern History of the Indian Chiefs by Ghose, Lokenath]</ref>|| Total recorded tenant population prior to the estate's dissolution.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Annual Revenue''' || Approx. 1,730,000 Rupees<ref name=":0" />|| Generated through agrarian tax on [[Ryot|ryots]], market tolls, and trade tariffs.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Chronology and Political Milestones ==<br />
The political survival of the Hathwa Raj relied on a delicate balance of diplomacy, military aid, and occasional rebellion against paramount imperial powers.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:100%; text-align:left;"<br />
|+ Key Historical Milestones<br />
|-<br />
! Year / Era !! Ruler !! Event / Significance<br />
|-<br />
| 6th Century BCE || Raja Bir Sen || Defeated the local [[Chero tribe|Chero]] chieftains; established the initial kingdom under the patronymic title "Sen".<ref>[https://archive.org/details/historyofhutwara00dutt/page/178/mode/2up G.N. Dutt - History of the Hutwa Raj] p. 179</ref><br />
|-<br />
| 1539 || Raja Jay Mal || Provided military asylum, food, and provisions to Mughal Emperor [[Humayun]] after the [[Battle of Chausa]].<ref>[https://archive.org/details/historyofhutwara00dutt/page/178/mode/2up] p. 181<br />
<br />
In some places, it's mentioned as battle of Buxar (1539)</ref><br />
|-<br />
| c. 1565 || Raja Kalyan Mal || Subdued regional rebellions in Eastern Bihar for Emperor [[Akbar]]; officially granted the hereditary title of '''Raja''' and shifted the capital to Kalyanpur (the capital seat of Kalyanpur was named after him).<ref>[https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Comprehensive_History_of_Bihar_pt_2_1987 <nowiki>Comprehensive History of Bihar: pt. 2. [1987]</nowiki>] p. 302, 324</ref><br />
|-<br />
| Early 17th C. || Maharaja Khemkaran Sahi Bahadur || Granted the honorific '''Maharaja Bahadur''' by Emperor [[Jahangir]] for active military assistance; established a strategic fort at Husainpur.<ref name=":3">[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.150766 The Golden Book Of India by Sir Roper Lethbridge]</ref><br />
|-<br />
| 1767 || Raja Fateh Sahi || Staged a fierce, decades-long guerrilla rebellion against the [[East India Company]] following the [[Treaty of Allahabad]].<ref name=":3" /><br />
|-<br />
| 1874–1896 || Maharaja Sir Kishen Pratap Sahi Bahadur || Led widespread socio-economic modernization, infrastructural changes, and famine relief programs across the estate.<br />
|-<br />
| 1952 || N/A || Official dissolution of the estate's administrative power via the Bihar Zamindari Abolition Act.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Civil and Cultural Contributions ==<br />
[[File:Thawe_Durga_Mandir_Outer_View.jpg|thumb|right|240px|The Thawe Durga Mandir in Gopalganj, an enduring spiritual landmark patronized by the Hathwa royal house.]]<br />
[[File:Rajendra-Prasad-Hathwa-Raj.jpg|thumb|Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the first president of India with members of the Hathwa royal family, Rajendra Prasad’s great uncle, Chaudhur Lal served as the Deewan of the Hathwa Raj.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books/about/Autobiography.html?id=3FdeGtdlinoC&printsec=frontcover&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_entity&hl=en&gl=IN&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Prasad, Rajendra. ''Autobiography''. Penguin Books India, 2010, p. 1. ISBN 978-0-14-306881-5.]</ref>]]<br />
The rulers of Hathwa acted as heavy patrons of religion, education, and public infrastructure, transforming their capital into a thriving socio-cultural hub. <br />
<br />
=== Educational Contibution ===<br />
Hathwa Raj was known for its notable secular contributions, especially in education and public infrastructure during the British period. The estate supported both traditional Indian and Western-style education. It sponsored numerous schools across its territories, including a Hathwa school and a Sanskrit ''pathshala'' in Machhagar Patti Jagdish village, along with two upper primary and nine lower primary schools. Historical records indicate that up to '''forty-four schools''' received full or partial funding from the estate. One of its flagship institutions was the '''Hathwa Eden School''' in Ratanchak, named after Lieutenant-Governor Sir Ashley Eden, whose foundation stone was laid in 1879.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj] p. 122 </ref> Additionally, the Maharani of Hathwa made a significant contribution of Rs. 15,600 toward the construction of a hostel for Hindu students at Patna College. During the same period, she also undertook several educational infrastructure projects, including the completion of hostel and associated buildings for the Northbrook School at Muzaffarpur and the construction of a hostel, out-houses, and residential quarters for the sons of zamindars and wards attached to the Zila School at Ranchi.<ref>[https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.05678 Report on the administration Bihar and Orissa 1914-1915] </ref> The Maharani also contributed Rs. 40,000 to the Ranchi College Fund.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj: Agrarian Relations in Colonial India, Saran District, 1793-1920] by Anand Yang, p. 123</ref> These initiatives demonstrated the Hathwa Raj’s active role in promoting educational access and supporting public welfare projects in the region.<br />
<br />
=== Infrastructure & Health ===<br />
Under Maharaja Sir Kishen Pratap Sahi Bahadur, the administration funded the construction of the Hathwa Eden School, the Raj dispensary, a post office, and the Durga Medical Hall. <br />
<br />
=== Commercial Hub ===<br />
By the 19th century, Hathwa was noted for its extensive bazaars and bi-weekly markets, attracting traders from across the province and facilitating regional trade. <br />
<br />
=== Religious Patronage ===<br />
Hathwa Raj was noted for its patronage of Hindu religious institutions and charitable works. <br />
<br />
* '''Gopal Mandir -''' The estate's principal religious establishment was the Gopal Mandir at Hathwa, housing the images of Radha and Krishna, which was regarded as the '''largest temple in Bihar''' and was reportedly constructed at a cost of '''four lakh rupees'''.<ref name=":1">[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj: Agrarian Relations in Colonial India, Saran District, 1793-1920 By Anand A. Yang] p. 122</ref> <br />
<br />
* '''[[Thawe Mandir]] -''' The royal family are ardent devotees of Goddess Durga. An earlier ruler, '''Maharaja Yuvraj Shahi Bahadur''', is said to have '''constructed the temple''' after seeing the goddess in a dream while resting in a jungle. According to history and tradition, this vision helped him defeat his arch-rival, the Afghan zamindar Kabul Muhammad. The [[Thawe Mandir]] remains a testament of their religious influence. The annual Durga Puja at Thawe was a grand state event, characterized by the Maharaja holding an annual ''durbar'' at the Sheesh Mahal, followed by a procession via elephant and buggy for ''darshan'' on Vijayadashami.<ref>[https://www.thawemandir.org/about/mythology thawemandir.org]</ref><ref name=":1" /> <ref>[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.150766/page/n197/mode/2up THE GOLDEN BOOK OF INDI] p. 174</ref><br />
<br />
* '''''Shivalaya'' at Banaras''' and various other temples and religious ceremonies were sponsored by Hathwa Raj family.<ref name=":1" /><br />
<br />
* '''Dussera Celebration -''' Dussehra (Dashara) was the most important annual ceremonial festival of the Hathwa Raj estate and served both as a religious observance and a public affirmation of the authority of the Hathwa Maharaja. It marked the beginning of the agricultural year, during which tenants visited the Hathwa palace to offer presents and convey their congratulations to the ruler. The Maharaja granted a formal darshan (audience) to his subjects, while European guests were entertained with receptions, elephant processions, and fireworks.<ref name=":2">[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false Between Raja and Raiyat: The Structures of Control in the Great Estate of Hathwa] p. 115</ref> The festival also reinforced the political and social hierarchy of the estate. Village headmen (''jeth-raiyats'') were ceremonially presented with turbans as symbols of their authority, while the Maharaja distributed cash gifts, generally four to eight rupees, to the headmen and sweets to the villagers. These rituals affirmed the Hathwa Raj's leadership, strengthened ties between the ruler and his tenants, and symbolized the unity of the estate under the Raja's authority. The celebrations thus combined religious devotion with public displays of loyalty, patronage, and royal prestige. <ref name=":2" /><ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj: Agrarian Relations in Colonial India, Saran District, 1793-1920]<br />
<br />
[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false By Anand A. Yang] p. 116</ref><ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false Between Raja and Raiyat: The Structures of Control in the Great Estate of Hathwa] p. 137</ref> In the present day, although the grandeur of the former zamindari-era celebrations has diminished, the Hathwa Raj family continues to observe several traditional customs. According to Maharaja Bahadur Sri Mrigendra Pratap Sahi, family members still gather at Hathwa during Durga Puja to worship their kuldevi, Thawe Maiyya, and remain there until Diwali. Ceremonial traditions such as the Maharaja's procession in a horse-drawn buggy to the Gopal Mandir, the annual durbar at the Sheesh Mahal, and the elephant ride for Vijayadashami darshan have been discontinued. However, the family continues the worship of the royal armoury ('''''Shastra Puja'''''), followed by a ceremonial guard of honour, and maintains the traditional practice of buffalo and goat sacrifice during the Sandhi Puja.<ref>[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/ex-zamindars-tryst-with-durga-puja/articleshow/16908429.cms Reminiscing the grandeur of yore] TOI article</ref><br />
<br />
=== Social Reform ===<br />
Behind the scenes, the internal hierarchy of the estate showed flashes of progressive reform. For instance, in the early 20th century, Binodini Dutt, the wife of the estate's Dewan (personal secretary), was heavily influenced by reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar. She actively aided in state affairs and vehemently protected young widows within the estate from oppressive traditional customs.<br />
<br />
== Heritage and Landmarks Gallery ==<br />
[[File:Maharaja Mrigendra Pratap Shahi Bahadur.jpg|thumb|Maharaja Mrigendra Pratap Shahi, the current titular chief of Hathwa Raj with Maharani sahiba Punam Shahi.]]<br />
<br />
== Current State and Legacy ==<br />
Like all princely estates and zamindaris in India, the legal and political authority of the Hathwa Raj ceased with the post-independence abolition of the Zamindari system in 1952. <br />
<br />
Today, the Hathwa Raj exists primarily as a rich cultural legacy. Its physical remnants—the residential palaces, the Gopal Mandir, and administrative ruins—still stand in the [[Gopalganj district]] as heritage landmarks. The royal family continues to maintain certain private traditions and religious rites, particularly the ritual animal sacrifices and ceremonies during the Thawe Durga Puja. To the local population, the Hathwa Raj remains a defining pillar of regional identity, anchoring the history of North Bihar to an era of ancient lineages and profound architectural heritage.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references responsive="2" /></div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=Hathwa_Raj&diff=668Hathwa Raj2026-08-03T11:44:27Z<p>Jalewar: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox<br />
| title = Hathwa Raj<br />
| image = Hathwa_Raj_Palace_Facade.jpg<br />
| caption = The Hathwa Raj Palace in Gopalganj, Bihar<br />
| label1 = Entity Type<br />
| data1 = Zamindari Estate<br />
| label2 = State<br />
| data2 = Bihar, India<br />
| label3 = Division<br />
| data3 = Saran division<br />
| label4 = Capital / Seat<br />
| data4 = Hathwa (historically Baghoch, Kalyanpur, Huseypur)<br />
| label5 = Dynasty<br />
| data5 = Baghochia Bhumihar<br />
| label6 = Founded<br />
| data6 = 6th century BCE (legendary)<br />
| label7 = Abolished<br />
| data7 = 1952 (Zamindari Abolition Act)<br />
| label8 = Total Area<br />
| data8 = 800 sq mi (2072 sq km or 512,000 acres)<br />
| label9 = Population<br />
| data9 = 391,000 (pre independence)<br />
| label10 = Revenue <br />
| data10 = 17,30,000<br />
| label11 = Gotra<br />
| data11 = Vatsa<br />
}}<br />
The '''Hathwa Raj''' (also known as the Hathua Estate or Kalyanpur chieftaincy) was one of the most prominent, wealthy, and historically significant [[zamindari]] estates in the Saran division of Bihar, India.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=kUueDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT250&dq=Hathwa+Raj&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjwpeb52oGWAxX9d2wGHQjqFWkQ6AF6BAgQEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false Ansari, T. H. (2019). Mughal Administration and the Zamindars of Bihar. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis.]</ref> Functioning as a semi-autonomous chieftaincy during the Mughal era and later as a premier zamindari under British colonial administration, the estate is renowned for its vast wealth, its deep genealogical history, and its socio-cultural impact on the region.<br />
<br />
== Origins, Lineage, and Family Background ==<br />
The Hathwa Raj was governed by the '''Baghochia dynasty''', a lineage of [[Bhumihars]] belonging to the [[Vatsa|Vats gotra]]. Recognized as one of the oldest aristocratic families in Bihar, the dynasty claims a history that stretches back over two millennia.<br />
<br />
* '''Legendary Foundation:''' Family traditions trace the estate's origins to '''Raja Bir Sen''' in the 6th century BCE, who is said to have received land after participating in a military campaign for the Kosala kingdom, eventually displacing local Chero tribes.<br />
* '''Patronymic Evolution:''' The royal house documented over 106 generations of rulers. Their patronymic title shifted over the centuries to reflect changing political alliances and imperial grants: starting as "Sen", changing to "Sinha" by the 16th descent, "Mal" by the 83rd, and finally "Sahi" (or Shahi) from the 87th generation onward.<br />
* '''Capitals and Seats of Power:''' Before settling in Hathwa, the seats of the Raj transitioned through several strategic locations, including Baghoch, Kalyanpur, Balchowra, and Huseypur.<br />
<br />
== Martial History and Domination in the Locality<ref>content://com.android.providers.downloads.documents/document/5802</ref> ==<br />
The military history of Hathwa Raj encompasses several centuries of territorial expansion, imperial campaign service under the Mughal Empire, regional rivalries in North Bihar, and armed opposition to the East India Company.<br />
<br />
=== Mughal era (16th–17th centuries) ===<br />
==== Kalyan Mal ====<br />
Around 1565, '''Maharaja Kalyan Mal''' (86th ruler) led a force of 5,000 infantry and 100 cavalry under Mughal Emperor Akbar to suppress a major rebellion in Eastern Bihar. Following his victory, Akbar awarded him the title of ''Maharaja'' and administrative authority over the region. Kalyan Mal established a fortified stronghold at Kalyanpur (in present-day Gopalganj district).<br />
<br />
==== Kshem Karan Sahi ====<br />
His successor, '''Maharaja Kshem Karan Sahi''' (87th ruler), commanded troops for Emperor Jahangir to suppress regional revolts. In recognition of his service, Jahangir conferred upon him the title ''Bahadur Shahi'' and the ''Mahi Maratib'' (Order of the Fish), an imperial honorific emblem. Kshem Karan relocated the capital to Hussepur, where he constructed a large fort.<br />
<br />
==== Jubaraj Sahi (Yuvaraj Shahi) ====<br />
During his reign from 1714 to 1737, '''Maharaja Jubaraj Sahi''' (95th ruler) expanded the estate's boundaries by capturing the Sipah pargana from an autonomous Afghan chieftain in North Bihar.<br />
<br />
=== Regional conflicts (18th century) ===<br />
==== Subjugation of Majhauli Raj ====<br />
'''Maharaja Sardar Sahi''' (98th ruler, r. 1744–1747) allied with Alivardi Khan, the Nawab of Bengal, in military operations. Sardar Sahi launched an offensive against the neighboring Majhauli Raj, destroying their fort (''garh''). As part of the peace terms, Majhauli rulers were prohibited from displaying their royal banners (''nishans'') and war drums (''dunkas'').<br />
<br />
=== Anti-colonial resistance (1747–1789) ===<br />
==== Fateh Sahi's rebellion ====<br />
'''Maharaja Fateh Bahadur Shahi (Fateh Sahi)''' (99th ruler, r. 1747–1789) actively resisted British East India Company rule in Bihar:<br />
* '''Alliance with Mir Qasim''': Provided military support to Mir Qasim leading up to the Battle of Buxar (1764).<br />
* '''Rejection of Diwani rights''': Strongly opposed the 1765 Treaty of Allahabad, which granted the East India Company ''Diwani'' (tax collection) rights over Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.<br />
* '''Guerrilla warfare''': Formed an alliance with the Raja of [[Bettiah Raj]] to wage guerrilla warfare against British forces.<br />
* '''Execution of Basant Sahi (1775)''': When the East India Company attempted to install his cousin, Babu Basant Sahi, as ruler in exchange for capturing Fateh Bahadur Shahi, Fateh Shahi launched a surprise attack at Yadavpur and killed Basant Sahi.<br />
* '''Establishment of Tamkuhi State''': Pushed out of Hussepur, Maharaja Fateh Bahadur Shahi established [[Tamkuhi Raj|Tamkuhi State]] in the Kingdom of Oudh (modern Deoria district).<br />
* '''Abdication''': In 1789, after more than two decades of armed insurgency, Fateh Sahi handed administration to his sons and became a ''Sanyasi''.<br />
<br />
=== British consolidation (19th century) ===<br />
==== Chattardhari Sahi ====<br />
'''Maharaja Chattardhari Sahi''' (100th ruler, r. 1789–1858) restored formal administration under the Decennial Settlement of 1790 by Lord Cornwallis. <br />
=== Summary of military campaigns ===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Ruler !! Reign / Era !! Major Campaign / Event !! Military & Territorial Outcome<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Kalyan Mal''' || c. 1565 || Eastern Bihar Campaign (Mughal-Akbar) || Granted title of ''Maharaja''; constructed Kalyanpur Fort.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Kshem Karan Sahi''' || 17th c. || Regional Pacification (Mughal-Jahangir) || Conferred ''Bahadur Shahi'' title and ''Mahi Maratib''; constructed Hussepur Fort.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Juvaraj Sahi''' || 1714–1737 || Sipah Pargana Campaign || Defeated Afghan chief; annexed Sipah pargana.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Sardar Sahi''' || 1744–1747 || Campaign against Majhauli Raj || Destroyed Majhauli Fort; banned rival military emblems (''nishans'' & ''dunkas'').<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Fateh Sahi''' || 1747–1789 || Anti-EIC Insurgency & Battle of Buxar || Waged 20-year guerrilla war; killed Basant Sahi (1775); founded Tamkuhi State.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Geography, Extent, and Economic Power ==<br />
At its zenith, the Hathwa Raj was a colossal administrative and economic entity. It was situated in the alluvial plains of North Bihar, bounded naturally by the Gandak River to the north, the Gogra River to the east, and the Ganges River to the south. <br />
[[File:Photo 2026-07-30 19-55-24.jpg|thumb|Parganas controlled by Hathwa Raj in Saran Division]] <br />
<br />
The estate's physical and economic baseline at its peak is outlined below:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="width:70%;"<br />
|+ Hathwa Raj Estate Baseline<br />
|-<br />
! Parameter !! Value / Scope !! Description<br />
|-<br />
| '''Territorial Extent''' || 800 sq. miles or 2080 sq. km<ref name=":0">[https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Bihar_and_Orissa_District_Gazeteers_Sara/hsQVAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&b] Bihar and Orissa District Gazeteers: Saran by Lewis Sydney Steward O'Malley</ref>|| Encompassed major parts of modern [[Gopalganj district|Gopalganj]], [[Siwan district|Siwan]], and [[Saran district|Chhapra]] districts.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Administrative Scope''' || 1,450 villages<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj by Anand Yang] </ref>|| Number of revenue-generating villages under direct proprietary right.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Demographics''' || 391,000+ subjects<ref>[https://archive.org/details/pli.kerala.rare.11274 Modern History of the Indian Chiefs by Ghose, Lokenath]</ref>|| Total recorded tenant population prior to the estate's dissolution.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Annual Revenue''' || Approx. 1,730,000 Rupees<ref name=":0" />|| Generated through agrarian tax on [[Ryot|ryots]], market tolls, and trade tariffs.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Chronology and Political Milestones ==<br />
The political survival of the Hathwa Raj relied on a delicate balance of diplomacy, military aid, and occasional rebellion against paramount imperial powers.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:100%; text-align:left;"<br />
|+ Key Historical Milestones<br />
|-<br />
! Year / Era !! Ruler !! Event / Significance<br />
|-<br />
| 6th Century BCE || Raja Bir Sen || Defeated the local [[Chero tribe|Chero]] chieftains; established the initial kingdom under the patronymic title "Sen".<ref>[https://archive.org/details/historyofhutwara00dutt/page/178/mode/2up G.N. Dutt - History of the Hutwa Raj] p. 179</ref><br />
|-<br />
| 1539 || Raja Jay Mal || Provided military asylum, food, and provisions to Mughal Emperor [[Humayun]] after the [[Battle of Chausa]].<ref>[https://archive.org/details/historyofhutwara00dutt/page/178/mode/2up] p. 181<br />
<br />
In some places, it's mentioned as battle of Buxar (1539)</ref><br />
|-<br />
| c. 1565 || Raja Kalyan Mal || Subdued regional rebellions in Eastern Bihar for Emperor [[Akbar]]; officially granted the hereditary title of '''Raja''' and shifted the capital to Kalyanpur (the capital seat of Kalyanpur was named after him).<ref>[https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Comprehensive_History_of_Bihar_pt_2_1987 <nowiki>Comprehensive History of Bihar: pt. 2. [1987]</nowiki>] p. 302, 324</ref><br />
|-<br />
| Early 17th C. || Maharaja Khemkaran Sahi Bahadur || Granted the honorific '''Maharaja Bahadur''' by Emperor [[Jahangir]] for active military assistance; established a strategic fort at Husainpur.<ref name=":3">[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.150766 The Golden Book Of India by Sir Roper Lethbridge]</ref><br />
|-<br />
| 1767 || Raja Fateh Sahi || Staged a fierce, decades-long guerrilla rebellion against the [[East India Company]] following the [[Treaty of Allahabad]].<ref name=":3" /><br />
|-<br />
| 1874–1896 || Maharaja Sir Kishen Pratap Sahi Bahadur || Led widespread socio-economic modernization, infrastructural changes, and famine relief programs across the estate.<br />
|-<br />
| 1952 || N/A || Official dissolution of the estate's administrative power via the Bihar Zamindari Abolition Act.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Civil and Cultural Contributions ==<br />
[[File:Thawe_Durga_Mandir_Outer_View.jpg|thumb|right|240px|The Thawe Durga Mandir in Gopalganj, an enduring spiritual landmark patronized by the Hathwa royal house.]]<br />
[[File:Rajendra-Prasad-Hathwa-Raj.jpg|thumb|Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the first president of India with members of the Hathwa royal family, Rajendra Prasad’s great uncle, Chaudhur Lal served as the Deewan of the Hathwa Raj.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books/about/Autobiography.html?id=3FdeGtdlinoC&printsec=frontcover&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_entity&hl=en&gl=IN&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Prasad, Rajendra. ''Autobiography''. Penguin Books India, 2010, p. 1. ISBN 978-0-14-306881-5.]</ref>]]<br />
The rulers of Hathwa acted as heavy patrons of religion, education, and public infrastructure, transforming their capital into a thriving socio-cultural hub. <br />
<br />
=== Educational Contibution ===<br />
Hathwa Raj was known for its notable secular contributions, especially in education and public infrastructure during the British period. The estate supported both traditional Indian and Western-style education. It sponsored numerous schools across its territories, including a Hathwa school and a Sanskrit ''pathshala'' in Machhagar Patti Jagdish village, along with two upper primary and nine lower primary schools. Historical records indicate that up to '''forty-four schools''' received full or partial funding from the estate. One of its flagship institutions was the '''Hathwa Eden School''' in Ratanchak, named after Lieutenant-Governor Sir Ashley Eden, whose foundation stone was laid in 1879.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj] p. 122 </ref> Additionally, the Maharani of Hathwa made a significant contribution of Rs. 15,600 toward the construction of a hostel for Hindu students at Patna College. During the same period, she also undertook several educational infrastructure projects, including the completion of hostel and associated buildings for the Northbrook School at Muzaffarpur and the construction of a hostel, out-houses, and residential quarters for the sons of zamindars and wards attached to the Zila School at Ranchi.<ref>[https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.05678 Report on the administration Bihar and Orissa 1914-1915] </ref> The Maharani also contributed Rs. 40,000 to the Ranchi College Fund.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj: Agrarian Relations in Colonial India, Saran District, 1793-1920] by Anand Yang, p. 123</ref> These initiatives demonstrated the Hathwa Raj’s active role in promoting educational access and supporting public welfare projects in the region.<br />
<br />
=== Infrastructure & Health ===<br />
Under Maharaja Sir Kishen Pratap Sahi Bahadur, the administration funded the construction of the Hathwa Eden School, the Raj dispensary, a post office, and the Durga Medical Hall. <br />
<br />
=== Commercial Hub ===<br />
By the 19th century, Hathwa was noted for its extensive bazaars and bi-weekly markets, attracting traders from across the province and facilitating regional trade. <br />
<br />
=== Religious Patronage ===<br />
Hathwa Raj was noted for its patronage of Hindu religious institutions and charitable works. <br />
<br />
* '''Gopal Mandir -''' The estate's principal religious establishment was the Gopal Mandir at Hathwa, housing the images of Radha and Krishna, which was regarded as the '''largest temple in Bihar''' and was reportedly constructed at a cost of '''four lakh rupees'''.<ref name=":1">[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj: Agrarian Relations in Colonial India, Saran District, 1793-1920 By Anand A. Yang] p. 122</ref> <br />
<br />
* '''[[Thawe Mandir]] -''' The royal family are ardent devotees of Goddess Durga. An earlier ruler, '''Maharaja Yuvraj Shahi Bahadur''', is said to have '''constructed the temple''' after seeing the goddess in a dream while resting in a jungle. According to history and tradition, this vision helped him defeat his arch-rival, the Afghan zamindar Kabul Muhammad. The [[Thawe Mandir]] remains a testament of their religious influence. The annual Durga Puja at Thawe was a grand state event, characterized by the Maharaja holding an annual ''durbar'' at the Sheesh Mahal, followed by a procession via elephant and buggy for ''darshan'' on Vijayadashami.<ref>[https://www.thawemandir.org/about/mythology thawemandir.org]</ref><ref name=":1" /> <ref>[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.150766/page/n197/mode/2up THE GOLDEN BOOK OF INDI] p. 174</ref><br />
<br />
* '''''Shivalaya'' at Banaras''' and various other temples and religious ceremonies were sponsored by Hathwa Raj family.<ref name=":1" /><br />
<br />
* '''Dussera Celebration -''' Dussehra (Dashara) was the most important annual ceremonial festival of the Hathwa Raj estate and served both as a religious observance and a public affirmation of the authority of the Hathwa Maharaja. It marked the beginning of the agricultural year, during which tenants visited the Hathwa palace to offer presents and convey their congratulations to the ruler. The Maharaja granted a formal darshan (audience) to his subjects, while European guests were entertained with receptions, elephant processions, and fireworks.<ref name=":2">[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false Between Raja and Raiyat: The Structures of Control in the Great Estate of Hathwa] p. 115</ref> The festival also reinforced the political and social hierarchy of the estate. Village headmen (''jeth-raiyats'') were ceremonially presented with turbans as symbols of their authority, while the Maharaja distributed cash gifts, generally four to eight rupees, to the headmen and sweets to the villagers. These rituals affirmed the Hathwa Raj's leadership, strengthened ties between the ruler and his tenants, and symbolized the unity of the estate under the Raja's authority. The celebrations thus combined religious devotion with public displays of loyalty, patronage, and royal prestige. <ref name=":2" /><ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj: Agrarian Relations in Colonial India, Saran District, 1793-1920]<br />
<br />
[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false By Anand A. Yang] p. 116</ref><ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false Between Raja and Raiyat: The Structures of Control in the Great Estate of Hathwa] p. 137</ref> In the present day, although the grandeur of the former zamindari-era celebrations has diminished, the Hathwa Raj family continues to observe several traditional customs. According to Maharaja Bahadur Sri Mrigendra Pratap Sahi, family members still gather at Hathwa during Durga Puja to worship their kuldevi, Thawe Maiyya, and remain there until Diwali. Ceremonial traditions such as the Maharaja's procession in a horse-drawn buggy to the Gopal Mandir, the annual durbar at the Sheesh Mahal, and the elephant ride for Vijayadashami darshan have been discontinued. However, the family continues the worship of the royal armoury ('''''Shastra Puja'''''), followed by a ceremonial guard of honour, and maintains the traditional practice of buffalo and goat sacrifice during the Sandhi Puja.<ref>[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/ex-zamindars-tryst-with-durga-puja/articleshow/16908429.cms Reminiscing the grandeur of yore] TOI article</ref><br />
<br />
=== Social Reform ===<br />
Behind the scenes, the internal hierarchy of the estate showed flashes of progressive reform. For instance, in the early 20th century, Binodini Dutt, the wife of the estate's Dewan (personal secretary), was heavily influenced by reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar. She actively aided in state affairs and vehemently protected young widows within the estate from oppressive traditional customs.<br />
<br />
== Heritage and Landmarks Gallery ==<br />
[[File:Maharaja Mrigendra Pratap Shahi Bahadur.jpg|thumb|Maharaja Mrigendra Pratap Shahi, the current titular chief of Hathwa Raj with Maharani sahiba Punam Shahi.]]<br />
<br />
== Current State and Legacy ==<br />
Like all princely estates and zamindaris in India, the legal and political authority of the Hathwa Raj ceased with the post-independence abolition of the Zamindari system in 1952. <br />
<br />
Today, the Hathwa Raj exists primarily as a rich cultural legacy. Its physical remnants—the residential palaces, the Gopal Mandir, and administrative ruins—still stand in the [[Gopalganj district]] as heritage landmarks. The royal family continues to maintain certain private traditions and religious rites, particularly the ritual animal sacrifices and ceremonies during the Thawe Durga Puja. To the local population, the Hathwa Raj remains a defining pillar of regional identity, anchoring the history of North Bihar to an era of ancient lineages and profound architectural heritage.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references responsive="2" /></div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=Hathwa_Raj&diff=667Hathwa Raj2026-08-03T11:40:47Z<p>Jalewar: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox<br />
| title = Hathwa Raj<br />
| image = Hathwa_Raj_Palace_Facade.jpg<br />
| caption = The Hathwa Raj Palace in Gopalganj, Bihar<br />
| label1 = Entity Type<br />
| data1 = Zamindari Estate<br />
| label2 = State<br />
| data2 = Bihar, India<br />
| label3 = Division<br />
| data3 = Saran division<br />
| label4 = Capital / Seat<br />
| data4 = Hathwa (historically Baghoch, Kalyanpur, Huseypur)<br />
| label5 = Dynasty<br />
| data5 = Baghochia Bhumihar<br />
| label6 = Founded<br />
| data6 = 6th century BCE (legendary)<br />
| label7 = Abolished<br />
| data7 = 1952 (Zamindari Abolition Act)<br />
| label8 = Total Area<br />
| data8 = 800 sq mi (2072 sq km or 512,000 acres)<br />
| label9 = Population<br />
| data9 = 391,000 (pre independence)<br />
| label10 = Revenue <br />
| data10 = 17,30,000<br />
| label11 = Gotra<br />
| data11 = Vatsa<br />
}}<br />
The '''Hathwa Raj''' (also known as the Hathua Estate or Kalyanpur chieftaincy) was one of the most prominent, wealthy, and historically significant [[zamindari]] estates in the Saran division of Bihar, India.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=kUueDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT250&dq=Hathwa+Raj&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjwpeb52oGWAxX9d2wGHQjqFWkQ6AF6BAgQEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false Ansari, T. H. (2019). Mughal Administration and the Zamindars of Bihar. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis.]</ref> Functioning as a semi-autonomous chieftaincy during the Mughal era and later as a premier zamindari under British colonial administration, the estate is renowned for its vast wealth, its deep genealogical history, and its socio-cultural impact on the region.<br />
<br />
== Origins, Lineage, and Family Background ==<br />
The Hathwa Raj was governed by the '''Baghochia dynasty''', a lineage of [[Bhumihars]] belonging to the [[Vatsa|Vats gotra]]. Recognized as one of the oldest aristocratic families in Bihar, the dynasty claims a history that stretches back over two millennia.<br />
<br />
* '''Legendary Foundation:''' Family traditions trace the estate's origins to '''Raja Bir Sen''' in the 6th century BCE, who is said to have received land after participating in a military campaign for the Kosala kingdom, eventually displacing local Chero tribes.<br />
* '''Patronymic Evolution:''' The royal house documented over 106 generations of rulers. Their patronymic title shifted over the centuries to reflect changing political alliances and imperial grants: starting as "Sen", changing to "Sinha" by the 16th descent, "Mal" by the 83rd, and finally "Sahi" (or Shahi) from the 87th generation onward.<br />
* '''Capitals and Seats of Power:''' Before settling in Hathwa, the seats of the Raj transitioned through several strategic locations, including Baghoch, Kalyanpur, Balchowra, and Huseypur.<br />
<br />
== Martial History and Domination in the Locality<ref>content://com.android.providers.downloads.documents/document/5802</ref> ==<br />
The military history of Hathwa Raj encompasses several centuries of territorial expansion, imperial campaign service under the Mughal Empire, regional rivalries in North Bihar, and armed opposition to the East India Company.<br />
<br />
=== Mughal era (16th–17th centuries) ===<br />
==== Kalyan Mal ====<br />
Around 1565, '''Maharaja Kalyan Mal''' (86th ruler) led a force of 5,000 infantry and 100 cavalry under Mughal Emperor Akbar to suppress a major rebellion in Eastern Bihar. Following his victory, Akbar awarded him the title of ''Maharaja'' and administrative authority over the region. Kalyan Mal established a fortified stronghold at Kalyanpur (in present-day Gopalganj district).<br />
<br />
==== Kshem Karan Sahi ====<br />
His successor, '''Maharaja Kshem Karan Sahi''' (87th ruler), commanded troops for Emperor Jahangir to suppress regional revolts. In recognition of his service, Jahangir conferred upon him the title ''Bahadur Shahi'' and the ''Mahi Maratib'' (Order of the Fish), an imperial honorific emblem. Kshem Karan relocated the capital to Hussepur, where he constructed a large fort.<br />
<br />
==== Jubaraj Sahi (Yuvaraj Shahi) ====<br />
During his reign from 1714 to 1737, '''Maharaja Jubaraj Sahi''' (95th ruler) expanded the estate's boundaries by capturing the Sipah pargana from an autonomous Afghan chieftain in North Bihar.<br />
<br />
=== Regional conflicts (18th century) ===<br />
==== Subjugation of Majhauli Raj ====<br />
'''Maharaja Sardar Sahi''' (98th ruler, r. 1744–1747) allied with Alivardi Khan, the Nawab of Bengal, in military operations. Sardar Sahi launched an offensive against the neighboring Majhauli Raj, destroying their fort (''garh''). As part of the peace terms, Majhauli rulers were prohibited from displaying their royal banners (''nishans'') and war drums (''dunkas'').<br />
<br />
=== Anti-colonial resistance (1747–1789) ===<br />
==== Fateh Sahi's rebellion ====<br />
'''Maharaja Fateh Bahadur Shahi (Fateh Sahi)''' (99th ruler, r. 1747–1789) actively resisted British East India Company rule in Bihar:<br />
* '''Alliance with Mir Qasim''': Provided military support to Mir Qasim leading up to the Battle of Buxar (1764).<br />
* '''Rejection of Diwani rights''': Strongly opposed the 1765 Treaty of Allahabad, which granted the East India Company ''Diwani'' (tax collection) rights over Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.<br />
* '''Guerrilla warfare''': Formed an alliance with the Raja of [[Bettiah Raj]] to wage guerrilla warfare against British forces.<br />
* '''Execution of Basant Sahi (1775)''': When the East India Company attempted to install his cousin, Babu Basant Sahi, as ruler in exchange for capturing Fateh Bahadur Shahi, Fateh Shahi launched a surprise attack at Yadavpur and killed Basant Sahi.<br />
* '''Establishment of Tamkuhi State''': Pushed out of Hussepur, Maharaja Fateh Bahadur Shahi established [[Tamkuhi Raj|Tamkuhi State]] in the Kingdom of Oudh (modern Deoria district).<br />
* '''Abdication''': In 1789, after more than two decades of armed insurgency, Fateh Sahi handed administration to his sons and became a ''Sanyasi''.<br />
<br />
=== British consolidation (19th century) ===<br />
==== Chattardhari Sahi ====<br />
'''Maharaja Chattardhari Sahi''' (100th ruler, r. 1789–1858) restored formal administration under the Decennial Settlement of 1790 by Lord Cornwallis. <br />
=== Summary of military campaigns ===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Ruler !! Reign / Era !! Major Campaign / Event !! Military & Territorial Outcome<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Kalyan Mal''' || c. 1565 || Eastern Bihar Campaign (Mughal-Akbar) || Granted title of ''Maharaja''; constructed Kalyanpur Fort.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Kshem Karan Sahi''' || 17th c. || Regional Pacification (Mughal-Jahangir) || Conferred ''Bahadur Shahi'' title and ''Mahi Maratib''; constructed Hussepur Fort.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Juvaraj Sahi''' || 1714–1737 || Sipah Pargana Campaign || Defeated Afghan chief; annexed Sipah pargana.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Sardar Sahi''' || 1744–1747 || Campaign against Majhauli Raj || Destroyed Majhauli Fort; banned rival military emblems (''nishans'' & ''dunkas'').<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Fateh Sahi''' || 1747–1789 || Anti-EIC Insurgency & Battle of Buxar || Waged 20-year guerrilla war; killed Basant Sahi (1775); founded Tamkuhi State.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Geography, Extent, and Economic Power ==<br />
At its zenith, the Hathwa Raj was a colossal administrative and economic entity. It was situated in the alluvial plains of North Bihar, bounded naturally by the Gandak River to the north, the Gogra River to the east, and the Ganges River to the south. <br />
[[File:Photo 2026-07-30 19-55-24.jpg|thumb|Parganas controlled by Hathwa Raj in Saran Division]] <br />
<br />
The estate's physical and economic baseline at its peak is outlined below:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="width:70%;"<br />
|+ Hathwa Raj Estate Baseline<br />
|-<br />
! Parameter !! Value / Scope !! Description<br />
|-<br />
| '''Territorial Extent''' || 800 sq. miles or 2080 sq. km<ref name=":0">[https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Bihar_and_Orissa_District_Gazeteers_Sara/hsQVAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&b] Bihar and Orissa District Gazeteers: Saran by Lewis Sydney Steward O'Malley</ref>|| Encompassed major parts of modern [[Gopalganj district|Gopalganj]], [[Siwan district|Siwan]], and [[Saran district|Chhapra]] districts.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Administrative Scope''' || 1,450 villages<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj by Anand Yang] </ref>|| Number of revenue-generating villages under direct proprietary right.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Demographics''' || 391,000+ subjects<ref>[https://archive.org/details/pli.kerala.rare.11274 Modern History of the Indian Chiefs by Ghose, Lokenath]</ref>|| Total recorded tenant population prior to the estate's dissolution.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Annual Revenue''' || Approx. 1,730,000 Rupees<ref name=":0" />|| Generated through agrarian tax on [[Ryot|ryots]], market tolls, and trade tariffs.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Chronology and Political Milestones ==<br />
The political survival of the Hathwa Raj relied on a delicate balance of diplomacy, military aid, and occasional rebellion against paramount imperial powers.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:100%; text-align:left;"<br />
|+ Key Historical Milestones<br />
|-<br />
! Year / Era !! Ruler !! Event / Significance<br />
|-<br />
| 6th Century BCE || Raja Bir Sen || Defeated the local [[Chero tribe|Chero]] chieftains; established the initial kingdom under the patronymic title "Sen".<ref>[https://archive.org/details/historyofhutwara00dutt/page/178/mode/2up G.N. Dutt - History of the Hutwa Raj] p. 179</ref><br />
|-<br />
| 1539 || Raja Jay Mal || Provided military asylum, food, and provisions to Mughal Emperor [[Humayun]] after the [[Battle of Chausa]].<ref>[https://archive.org/details/historyofhutwara00dutt/page/178/mode/2up] p. 181<br />
<br />
In some places, it's mentioned as battle of Buxar (1539)</ref><br />
|-<br />
| c. 1565 || Raja Kalyan Mal || Subdued regional rebellions in Eastern Bihar for Emperor [[Akbar]]; officially granted the hereditary title of '''Raja''' and shifted the capital to Kalyanpur (the capital seat of Kalyanpur was named after him).<ref>[https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Comprehensive_History_of_Bihar_pt_2_1987 <nowiki>Comprehensive History of Bihar: pt. 2. [1987]</nowiki>] p. 302, 324</ref><br />
|-<br />
| Early 17th C. || Maharaja Khemkaran Sahi Bahadur || Granted the honorific '''Maharaja Bahadur''' by Emperor [[Jahangir]] for active military assistance; established a strategic fort at Husainpur.<ref name=":3">[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.150766 The Golden Book Of India by Sir Roper Lethbridge]</ref><br />
|-<br />
| 1767 || Raja Fateh Sahi || Staged a fierce, decades-long guerrilla rebellion against the [[East India Company]] following the [[Treaty of Allahabad]].<ref name=":3" /><br />
|-<br />
| 1874–1896 || Maharaja Sir Kishen Pratap Sahi Bahadur || Led widespread socio-economic modernization, infrastructural changes, and famine relief programs across the estate.<br />
|-<br />
| 1952 || N/A || Official dissolution of the estate's administrative power via the Bihar Zamindari Abolition Act.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Civil and Cultural Contributions ==<br />
[[File:Thawe_Durga_Mandir_Outer_View.jpg|thumb|right|240px|The Thawe Durga Mandir in Gopalganj, an enduring spiritual landmark patronized by the Hathwa royal house.]]<br />
[[File:Rajendra-Prasad-Hathwa-Raj.jpg|thumb|Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the first president of India with members of the Hathwa royal family, Rajendra Prasad’s great uncle, Chaudhur Lal served as the Deewan of the Hathwa Raj.<ref>Prasad, Rajendra. ''Autobiography''. Penguin Books India, 2010, p. 1. ISBN 978-0-14-306881-5.</ref>]]<br />
The rulers of Hathwa acted as heavy patrons of religion, education, and public infrastructure, transforming their capital into a thriving socio-cultural hub. <br />
<br />
=== Educational Contibution ===<br />
Hathwa Raj was known for its notable secular contributions, especially in education and public infrastructure during the British period. The estate supported both traditional Indian and Western-style education. It sponsored numerous schools across its territories, including a Hathwa school and a Sanskrit ''pathshala'' in Machhagar Patti Jagdish village, along with two upper primary and nine lower primary schools. Historical records indicate that up to '''forty-four schools''' received full or partial funding from the estate. One of its flagship institutions was the '''Hathwa Eden School''' in Ratanchak, named after Lieutenant-Governor Sir Ashley Eden, whose foundation stone was laid in 1879.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj] p. 122 </ref> Additionally, the Maharani of Hathwa made a significant contribution of Rs. 15,600 toward the construction of a hostel for Hindu students at Patna College. During the same period, she also undertook several educational infrastructure projects, including the completion of hostel and associated buildings for the Northbrook School at Muzaffarpur and the construction of a hostel, out-houses, and residential quarters for the sons of zamindars and wards attached to the Zila School at Ranchi.<ref>[https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.05678 Report on the administration Bihar and Orissa 1914-1915] </ref> The Maharani also contributed Rs. 40,000 to the Ranchi College Fund.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj: Agrarian Relations in Colonial India, Saran District, 1793-1920] by Anand Yang, p. 123</ref> These initiatives demonstrated the Hathwa Raj’s active role in promoting educational access and supporting public welfare projects in the region.<br />
<br />
=== Infrastructure & Health ===<br />
Under Maharaja Sir Kishen Pratap Sahi Bahadur, the administration funded the construction of the Hathwa Eden School, the Raj dispensary, a post office, and the Durga Medical Hall. <br />
<br />
=== Commercial Hub ===<br />
By the 19th century, Hathwa was noted for its extensive bazaars and bi-weekly markets, attracting traders from across the province and facilitating regional trade. <br />
<br />
=== Religious Patronage ===<br />
Hathwa Raj was noted for its patronage of Hindu religious institutions and charitable works. <br />
<br />
* '''Gopal Mandir -''' The estate's principal religious establishment was the Gopal Mandir at Hathwa, housing the images of Radha and Krishna, which was regarded as the '''largest temple in Bihar''' and was reportedly constructed at a cost of '''four lakh rupees'''.<ref name=":1">[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj: Agrarian Relations in Colonial India, Saran District, 1793-1920 By Anand A. Yang] p. 122</ref> <br />
<br />
* '''[[Thawe Mandir]] -''' The royal family are ardent devotees of Goddess Durga. An earlier ruler, '''Maharaja Yuvraj Shahi Bahadur''', is said to have '''constructed the temple''' after seeing the goddess in a dream while resting in a jungle. According to history and tradition, this vision helped him defeat his arch-rival, the Afghan zamindar Kabul Muhammad. The [[Thawe Mandir]] remains a testament of their religious influence. The annual Durga Puja at Thawe was a grand state event, characterized by the Maharaja holding an annual ''durbar'' at the Sheesh Mahal, followed by a procession via elephant and buggy for ''darshan'' on Vijayadashami.<ref>[https://www.thawemandir.org/about/mythology thawemandir.org]</ref><ref name=":1" /> <ref>[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.150766/page/n197/mode/2up THE GOLDEN BOOK OF INDI] p. 174</ref><br />
<br />
* '''''Shivalaya'' at Banaras''' and various other temples and religious ceremonies were sponsored by Hathwa Raj family.<ref name=":1" /><br />
<br />
* '''Dussera Celebration -''' Dussehra (Dashara) was the most important annual ceremonial festival of the Hathwa Raj estate and served both as a religious observance and a public affirmation of the authority of the Hathwa Maharaja. It marked the beginning of the agricultural year, during which tenants visited the Hathwa palace to offer presents and convey their congratulations to the ruler. The Maharaja granted a formal darshan (audience) to his subjects, while European guests were entertained with receptions, elephant processions, and fireworks.<ref name=":2">[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false Between Raja and Raiyat: The Structures of Control in the Great Estate of Hathwa] p. 115</ref> The festival also reinforced the political and social hierarchy of the estate. Village headmen (''jeth-raiyats'') were ceremonially presented with turbans as symbols of their authority, while the Maharaja distributed cash gifts, generally four to eight rupees, to the headmen and sweets to the villagers. These rituals affirmed the Hathwa Raj's leadership, strengthened ties between the ruler and his tenants, and symbolized the unity of the estate under the Raja's authority. The celebrations thus combined religious devotion with public displays of loyalty, patronage, and royal prestige. <ref name=":2" /><ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj: Agrarian Relations in Colonial India, Saran District, 1793-1920]<br />
<br />
[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false By Anand A. Yang] p. 116</ref><ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false Between Raja and Raiyat: The Structures of Control in the Great Estate of Hathwa] p. 137</ref> In the present day, although the grandeur of the former zamindari-era celebrations has diminished, the Hathwa Raj family continues to observe several traditional customs. According to Maharaja Bahadur Sri Mrigendra Pratap Sahi, family members still gather at Hathwa during Durga Puja to worship their kuldevi, Thawe Maiyya, and remain there until Diwali. Ceremonial traditions such as the Maharaja's procession in a horse-drawn buggy to the Gopal Mandir, the annual durbar at the Sheesh Mahal, and the elephant ride for Vijayadashami darshan have been discontinued. However, the family continues the worship of the royal armoury ('''''Shastra Puja'''''), followed by a ceremonial guard of honour, and maintains the traditional practice of buffalo and goat sacrifice during the Sandhi Puja.<ref>[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/ex-zamindars-tryst-with-durga-puja/articleshow/16908429.cms Reminiscing the grandeur of yore] TOI article</ref><br />
<br />
=== Social Reform ===<br />
Behind the scenes, the internal hierarchy of the estate showed flashes of progressive reform. For instance, in the early 20th century, Binodini Dutt, the wife of the estate's Dewan (personal secretary), was heavily influenced by reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar. She actively aided in state affairs and vehemently protected young widows within the estate from oppressive traditional customs.<br />
<br />
== Heritage and Landmarks Gallery ==<br />
[[File:Maharaja Mrigendra Pratap Shahi Bahadur.jpg|thumb|Maharaja Mrigendra Pratap Shahi, the current titular chief of Hathwa Raj with Maharani sahiba Punam Shahi.]]<br />
<br />
== Current State and Legacy ==<br />
Like all princely estates and zamindaris in India, the legal and political authority of the Hathwa Raj ceased with the post-independence abolition of the Zamindari system in 1952. <br />
<br />
Today, the Hathwa Raj exists primarily as a rich cultural legacy. Its physical remnants—the residential palaces, the Gopal Mandir, and administrative ruins—still stand in the [[Gopalganj district]] as heritage landmarks. The royal family continues to maintain certain private traditions and religious rites, particularly the ritual animal sacrifices and ceremonies during the Thawe Durga Puja. To the local population, the Hathwa Raj remains a defining pillar of regional identity, anchoring the history of North Bihar to an era of ancient lineages and profound architectural heritage.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references responsive="2" /></div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=Hathwa_Raj&diff=666Hathwa Raj2026-08-03T11:35:06Z<p>Jalewar: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox<br />
| title = Hathwa Raj<br />
| image = Hathwa_Raj_Palace_Facade.jpg<br />
| caption = The Hathwa Raj Palace in Gopalganj, Bihar<br />
| label1 = Entity Type<br />
| data1 = Zamindari Estate<br />
| label2 = State<br />
| data2 = Bihar, India<br />
| label3 = Division<br />
| data3 = Saran division<br />
| label4 = Capital / Seat<br />
| data4 = Hathwa (historically Baghoch, Kalyanpur, Huseypur)<br />
| label5 = Dynasty<br />
| data5 = Baghochia Bhumihar<br />
| label6 = Founded<br />
| data6 = 6th century BCE (legendary)<br />
| label7 = Abolished<br />
| data7 = 1952 (Zamindari Abolition Act)<br />
| label8 = Total Area<br />
| data8 = 800 sq mi (2072 sq km or 512,000 acres)<br />
| label9 = Population<br />
| data9 = 391,000 (pre independence)<br />
| label10 = Revenue <br />
| data10 = 17,30,000<br />
| label11 = Gotra<br />
| data11 = Vatsa<br />
}}<br />
The '''Hathwa Raj''' (also known as the Hathua Estate or Kalyanpur chieftaincy) was one of the most prominent, wealthy, and historically significant [[zamindari]] estates in the Saran division of Bihar, India.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=kUueDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT250&dq=Hathwa+Raj&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjwpeb52oGWAxX9d2wGHQjqFWkQ6AF6BAgQEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false Ansari, T. H. (2019). Mughal Administration and the Zamindars of Bihar. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis.]</ref> Functioning as a semi-autonomous chieftaincy during the Mughal era and later as a premier zamindari under British colonial administration, the estate is renowned for its vast wealth, its deep genealogical history, and its socio-cultural impact on the region.<br />
<br />
== Origins, Lineage, and Family Background ==<br />
The Hathwa Raj was governed by the '''Baghochia dynasty''', a lineage of [[Bhumihars]] belonging to the [[Vatsa|Vats gotra]]. Recognized as one of the oldest aristocratic families in Bihar, the dynasty claims a history that stretches back over two millennia.<br />
<br />
* '''Legendary Foundation:''' Family traditions trace the estate's origins to '''Raja Bir Sen''' in the 6th century BCE, who is said to have received land after participating in a military campaign for the Kosala kingdom, eventually displacing local Chero tribes.<br />
* '''Patronymic Evolution:''' The royal house documented over 106 generations of rulers. Their patronymic title shifted over the centuries to reflect changing political alliances and imperial grants: starting as "Sen", changing to "Sinha" by the 16th descent, "Mal" by the 83rd, and finally "Sahi" (or Shahi) from the 87th generation onward.<br />
* '''Capitals and Seats of Power:''' Before settling in Hathwa, the seats of the Raj transitioned through several strategic locations, including Baghoch, Kalyanpur, Balchowra, and Huseypur.<br />
<br />
== Martial History and Domination in the Locality<ref>content://com.android.providers.downloads.documents/document/5802</ref> ==<br />
The military history of Hathwa Raj encompasses several centuries of territorial expansion, imperial campaign service under the Mughal Empire, regional rivalries in North Bihar, and armed opposition to the East India Company.<br />
<br />
=== Mughal era (16th–17th centuries) ===<br />
==== Kalyan Mal ====<br />
Around 1565, '''Maharaja Kalyan Mal''' (86th ruler) led a force of 5,000 infantry and 100 cavalry under Mughal Emperor Akbar to suppress a major rebellion in Eastern Bihar. Following his victory, Akbar awarded him the title of ''Maharaja'' and administrative authority over the region. Kalyan Mal established a fortified stronghold at Kalyanpur (in present-day Gopalganj district).<br />
<br />
==== Kshem Karan Sahi ====<br />
His successor, '''Maharaja Kshem Karan Sahi''' (87th ruler), commanded troops for Emperor Jahangir to suppress regional revolts. In recognition of his service, Jahangir conferred upon him the title ''Bahadur Shahi'' and the ''Mahi Maratib'' (Order of the Fish), an imperial honorific emblem. Kshem Karan relocated the capital to Hussepur, where he constructed a large fort.<br />
<br />
==== Jubaraj Sahi (Yuvaraj Shahi) ====<br />
During his reign from 1714 to 1737, '''Maharaja Jubaraj Sahi''' (95th ruler) expanded the estate's boundaries by capturing the Sipah pargana from an autonomous Afghan chieftain in North Bihar.<br />
<br />
=== Regional conflicts (18th century) ===<br />
==== Subjugation of Majhauli Raj ====<br />
'''Maharaja Sardar Sahi''' (98th ruler, r. 1744–1747) allied with Alivardi Khan, the Nawab of Bengal, in military operations. Sardar Sahi launched an offensive against the neighboring Majhauli Raj, destroying their fort (''garh''). As part of the peace terms, Majhauli rulers were prohibited from displaying their royal banners (''nishans'') and war drums (''dunkas'').<br />
<br />
=== Anti-colonial resistance (1747–1789) ===<br />
==== Fateh Sahi's rebellion ====<br />
'''Maharaja Fateh Bahadur Shahi (Fateh Sahi)''' (99th ruler, r. 1747–1789) actively resisted British East India Company rule in Bihar:<br />
* '''Alliance with Mir Qasim''': Provided military support to Mir Qasim leading up to the Battle of Buxar (1764).<br />
* '''Rejection of Diwani rights''': Strongly opposed the 1765 Treaty of Allahabad, which granted the East India Company ''Diwani'' (tax collection) rights over Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.<br />
* '''Guerrilla warfare''': Formed an alliance with the Raja of [[Bettiah Raj]] to wage guerrilla warfare against British forces.<br />
* '''Execution of Basant Sahi (1775)''': When the East India Company attempted to install his cousin, Babu Basant Sahi, as ruler in exchange for capturing Fateh Bahadur Shahi, Fateh Shahi launched a surprise attack at Yadavpur and killed Basant Sahi.<br />
* '''Establishment of Tamkuhi State''': Pushed out of Hussepur, Maharaja Fateh Bahadur Shahi established [[Tamkuhi Raj|Tamkuhi State]] in the Kingdom of Oudh (modern Deoria district).<br />
* '''Abdication''': In 1789, after more than two decades of armed insurgency, Fateh Sahi handed administration to his sons and became a ''Sanyasi''.<br />
<br />
=== British consolidation (19th century) ===<br />
==== Chattardhari Sahi ====<br />
'''Maharaja Chattardhari Sahi''' (100th ruler, r. 1789–1858) restored formal administration under the Decennial Settlement of 1790 by Lord Cornwallis. <br />
=== Summary of military campaigns ===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Ruler !! Reign / Era !! Major Campaign / Event !! Military & Territorial Outcome<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Kalyan Mal''' || c. 1565 || Eastern Bihar Campaign (Mughal-Akbar) || Granted title of ''Maharaja''; constructed Kalyanpur Fort.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Kshem Karan Sahi''' || 17th c. || Regional Pacification (Mughal-Jahangir) || Conferred ''Bahadur Shahi'' title and ''Mahi Maratib''; constructed Hussepur Fort.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Juvaraj Sahi''' || 1714–1737 || Sipah Pargana Campaign || Defeated Afghan chief; annexed Sipah pargana.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Sardar Sahi''' || 1744–1747 || Campaign against Majhauli Raj || Destroyed Majhauli Fort; banned rival military emblems (''nishans'' & ''dunkas'').<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Fateh Sahi''' || 1747–1789 || Anti-EIC Insurgency & Battle of Buxar || Waged 20-year guerrilla war; killed Basant Sahi (1775); founded Tamkuhi State.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Geography, Extent, and Economic Power ==<br />
At its zenith, the Hathwa Raj was a colossal administrative and economic entity. It was situated in the alluvial plains of North Bihar, bounded naturally by the Gandak River to the north, the Gogra River to the east, and the Ganges River to the south. <br />
[[File:Photo 2026-07-30 19-55-24.jpg|thumb|Parganas controlled by Hathwa Raj in Saran Division]] <br />
<br />
The estate's physical and economic baseline at its peak is outlined below:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="width:70%;"<br />
|+ Hathwa Raj Estate Baseline<br />
|-<br />
! Parameter !! Value / Scope !! Description<br />
|-<br />
| '''Territorial Extent''' || 800 sq. miles or 2080 sq. km<ref name=":0">[https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Bihar_and_Orissa_District_Gazeteers_Sara/hsQVAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&b] Bihar and Orissa District Gazeteers: Saran by Lewis Sydney Steward O'Malley</ref>|| Encompassed major parts of modern [[Gopalganj district|Gopalganj]], [[Siwan district|Siwan]], and [[Saran district|Chhapra]] districts.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Administrative Scope''' || 1,450 villages<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj by Anand Yang] </ref>|| Number of revenue-generating villages under direct proprietary right.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Demographics''' || 391,000+ subjects<ref>[https://archive.org/details/pli.kerala.rare.11274 Modern History of the Indian Chiefs by Ghose, Lokenath]</ref>|| Total recorded tenant population prior to the estate's dissolution.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Annual Revenue''' || Approx. 1,730,000 Rupees<ref name=":0" />|| Generated through agrarian tax on [[Ryot|ryots]], market tolls, and trade tariffs.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Chronology and Political Milestones ==<br />
The political survival of the Hathwa Raj relied on a delicate balance of diplomacy, military aid, and occasional rebellion against paramount imperial powers.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:100%; text-align:left;"<br />
|+ Key Historical Milestones<br />
|-<br />
! Year / Era !! Ruler !! Event / Significance<br />
|-<br />
| 6th Century BCE || Raja Bir Sen || Defeated the local [[Chero tribe|Chero]] chieftains; established the initial kingdom under the patronymic title "Sen".<ref>[https://archive.org/details/historyofhutwara00dutt/page/178/mode/2up G.N. Dutt - History of the Hutwa Raj] p. 179</ref><br />
|-<br />
| 1539 || Raja Jay Mal || Provided military asylum, food, and provisions to Mughal Emperor [[Humayun]] after the [[Battle of Chausa]].<ref>[https://archive.org/details/historyofhutwara00dutt/page/178/mode/2up] p. 181<br />
<br />
In some places, it's mentioned as battle of Buxar (1539)</ref><br />
|-<br />
| c. 1565 || Raja Kalyan Mal || Subdued regional rebellions in Eastern Bihar for Emperor [[Akbar]]; officially granted the hereditary title of '''Raja''' and shifted the capital to Kalyanpur (the capital seat of Kalyanpur was named after him).<ref>[https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Comprehensive_History_of_Bihar_pt_2_1987 <nowiki>Comprehensive History of Bihar: pt. 2. [1987]</nowiki>] p. 302, 324</ref><br />
|-<br />
| Early 17th C. || Maharaja Khemkaran Sahi Bahadur || Granted the honorific '''Maharaja Bahadur''' by Emperor [[Jahangir]] for active military assistance; established a strategic fort at Husainpur.<ref name=":3">[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.150766 The Golden Book Of India by Sir Roper Lethbridge]</ref><br />
|-<br />
| 1767 || Raja Fateh Sahi || Staged a fierce, decades-long guerrilla rebellion against the [[East India Company]] following the [[Treaty of Allahabad]].<ref name=":3" /><br />
|-<br />
| 1874–1896 || Maharaja Sir Kishen Pratap Sahi Bahadur || Led widespread socio-economic modernization, infrastructural changes, and famine relief programs across the estate.<br />
|-<br />
| 1952 || N/A || Official dissolution of the estate's administrative power via the Bihar Zamindari Abolition Act.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Civil and Cultural Contributions ==<br />
[[File:Thawe_Durga_Mandir_Outer_View.jpg|thumb|right|240px|The Thawe Durga Mandir in Gopalganj, an enduring spiritual landmark patronized by the Hathwa royal house.]]<br />
[[File:Rajendra-Prasad-Hathwa-Raj.jpg|thumb|Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the first president of India with members of the Hathwa royal family, Rajendra Prasad’s great uncle, Chaudhur Lal served as the Deewan of the Hathwa Raj.<ref>Prasad, Rajendra. ''India Divided''. Penguin Books India, 2010, p. 1. ISBN 978-0-14-306881-5.</ref>]]<br />
The rulers of Hathwa acted as heavy patrons of religion, education, and public infrastructure, transforming their capital into a thriving socio-cultural hub. <br />
<br />
=== Educational Contibution ===<br />
Hathwa Raj was known for its notable secular contributions, especially in education and public infrastructure during the British period. The estate supported both traditional Indian and Western-style education. It sponsored numerous schools across its territories, including a Hathwa school and a Sanskrit ''pathshala'' in Machhagar Patti Jagdish village, along with two upper primary and nine lower primary schools. Historical records indicate that up to '''forty-four schools''' received full or partial funding from the estate. One of its flagship institutions was the '''Hathwa Eden School''' in Ratanchak, named after Lieutenant-Governor Sir Ashley Eden, whose foundation stone was laid in 1879.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj] p. 122 </ref> Additionally, the Maharani of Hathwa made a significant contribution of Rs. 15,600 toward the construction of a hostel for Hindu students at Patna College. During the same period, she also undertook several educational infrastructure projects, including the completion of hostel and associated buildings for the Northbrook School at Muzaffarpur and the construction of a hostel, out-houses, and residential quarters for the sons of zamindars and wards attached to the Zila School at Ranchi.<ref>[https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.05678 Report on the administration Bihar and Orissa 1914-1915] </ref> The Maharani also contributed Rs. 40,000 to the Ranchi College Fund.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj: Agrarian Relations in Colonial India, Saran District, 1793-1920] by Anand Yang, p. 123</ref> These initiatives demonstrated the Hathwa Raj’s active role in promoting educational access and supporting public welfare projects in the region.<br />
<br />
=== Infrastructure & Health ===<br />
Under Maharaja Sir Kishen Pratap Sahi Bahadur, the administration funded the construction of the Hathwa Eden School, the Raj dispensary, a post office, and the Durga Medical Hall. <br />
<br />
=== Commercial Hub ===<br />
By the 19th century, Hathwa was noted for its extensive bazaars and bi-weekly markets, attracting traders from across the province and facilitating regional trade. <br />
<br />
=== Religious Patronage ===<br />
Hathwa Raj was noted for its patronage of Hindu religious institutions and charitable works. <br />
<br />
* '''Gopal Mandir -''' The estate's principal religious establishment was the Gopal Mandir at Hathwa, housing the images of Radha and Krishna, which was regarded as the '''largest temple in Bihar''' and was reportedly constructed at a cost of '''four lakh rupees'''.<ref name=":1">[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj: Agrarian Relations in Colonial India, Saran District, 1793-1920 By Anand A. Yang] p. 122</ref> <br />
<br />
* '''[[Thawe Mandir]] -''' The royal family are ardent devotees of Goddess Durga. An earlier ruler, '''Maharaja Yuvraj Shahi Bahadur''', is said to have '''constructed the temple''' after seeing the goddess in a dream while resting in a jungle. According to history and tradition, this vision helped him defeat his arch-rival, the Afghan zamindar Kabul Muhammad. The [[Thawe Mandir]] remains a testament of their religious influence. The annual Durga Puja at Thawe was a grand state event, characterized by the Maharaja holding an annual ''durbar'' at the Sheesh Mahal, followed by a procession via elephant and buggy for ''darshan'' on Vijayadashami.<ref>[https://www.thawemandir.org/about/mythology thawemandir.org]</ref><ref name=":1" /> <ref>[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.150766/page/n197/mode/2up THE GOLDEN BOOK OF INDI] p. 174</ref><br />
<br />
* '''''Shivalaya'' at Banaras''' and various other temples and religious ceremonies were sponsored by Hathwa Raj family.<ref name=":1" /><br />
<br />
* '''Dussera Celebration -''' Dussehra (Dashara) was the most important annual ceremonial festival of the Hathwa Raj estate and served both as a religious observance and a public affirmation of the authority of the Hathwa Maharaja. It marked the beginning of the agricultural year, during which tenants visited the Hathwa palace to offer presents and convey their congratulations to the ruler. The Maharaja granted a formal darshan (audience) to his subjects, while European guests were entertained with receptions, elephant processions, and fireworks.<ref name=":2">[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false Between Raja and Raiyat: The Structures of Control in the Great Estate of Hathwa] p. 115</ref> The festival also reinforced the political and social hierarchy of the estate. Village headmen (''jeth-raiyats'') were ceremonially presented with turbans as symbols of their authority, while the Maharaja distributed cash gifts, generally four to eight rupees, to the headmen and sweets to the villagers. These rituals affirmed the Hathwa Raj's leadership, strengthened ties between the ruler and his tenants, and symbolized the unity of the estate under the Raja's authority. The celebrations thus combined religious devotion with public displays of loyalty, patronage, and royal prestige. <ref name=":2" /><ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj: Agrarian Relations in Colonial India, Saran District, 1793-1920]<br />
<br />
[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false By Anand A. Yang] p. 116</ref><ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false Between Raja and Raiyat: The Structures of Control in the Great Estate of Hathwa] p. 137</ref> In the present day, although the grandeur of the former zamindari-era celebrations has diminished, the Hathwa Raj family continues to observe several traditional customs. According to Maharaja Bahadur Sri Mrigendra Pratap Sahi, family members still gather at Hathwa during Durga Puja to worship their kuldevi, Thawe Maiyya, and remain there until Diwali. Ceremonial traditions such as the Maharaja's procession in a horse-drawn buggy to the Gopal Mandir, the annual durbar at the Sheesh Mahal, and the elephant ride for Vijayadashami darshan have been discontinued. However, the family continues the worship of the royal armoury ('''''Shastra Puja'''''), followed by a ceremonial guard of honour, and maintains the traditional practice of buffalo and goat sacrifice during the Sandhi Puja.<ref>[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/ex-zamindars-tryst-with-durga-puja/articleshow/16908429.cms Reminiscing the grandeur of yore] TOI article</ref><br />
<br />
=== Social Reform ===<br />
Behind the scenes, the internal hierarchy of the estate showed flashes of progressive reform. For instance, in the early 20th century, Binodini Dutt, the wife of the estate's Dewan (personal secretary), was heavily influenced by reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar. She actively aided in state affairs and vehemently protected young widows within the estate from oppressive traditional customs.<br />
<br />
== Heritage and Landmarks Gallery ==<br />
[[File:Maharaja Mrigendra Pratap Shahi Bahadur.jpg|thumb|Maharaja Mrigendra Pratap Shahi, the current titular chief of Hathwa Raj with Maharani sahiba Punam Shahi.]]<br />
<br />
== Current State and Legacy ==<br />
Like all princely estates and zamindaris in India, the legal and political authority of the Hathwa Raj ceased with the post-independence abolition of the Zamindari system in 1952. <br />
<br />
Today, the Hathwa Raj exists primarily as a rich cultural legacy. Its physical remnants—the residential palaces, the Gopal Mandir, and administrative ruins—still stand in the [[Gopalganj district]] as heritage landmarks. The royal family continues to maintain certain private traditions and religious rites, particularly the ritual animal sacrifices and ceremonies during the Thawe Durga Puja. To the local population, the Hathwa Raj remains a defining pillar of regional identity, anchoring the history of North Bihar to an era of ancient lineages and profound architectural heritage.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references responsive="2" /></div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=Hathwa_Raj&diff=665Hathwa Raj2026-08-03T11:30:23Z<p>Jalewar: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox<br />
| title = Hathwa Raj<br />
| image = Hathwa_Raj_Palace_Facade.jpg<br />
| caption = The Hathwa Raj Palace in Gopalganj, Bihar<br />
| label1 = Entity Type<br />
| data1 = Zamindari Estate<br />
| label2 = State<br />
| data2 = Bihar, India<br />
| label3 = Division<br />
| data3 = Saran division<br />
| label4 = Capital / Seat<br />
| data4 = Hathwa (historically Baghoch, Kalyanpur, Huseypur)<br />
| label5 = Dynasty<br />
| data5 = Baghochia Bhumihar<br />
| label6 = Founded<br />
| data6 = 6th century BCE (legendary)<br />
| label7 = Abolished<br />
| data7 = 1952 (Zamindari Abolition Act)<br />
| label8 = Total Area<br />
| data8 = 800 sq mi (2072 sq km or 512,000 acres)<br />
| label9 = Population<br />
| data9 = 391,000 (pre independence)<br />
| label10 = Revenue <br />
| data10 = 17,30,000<br />
| label11 = Gotra<br />
| data11 = Vatsa<br />
}}<br />
The '''Hathwa Raj''' (also known as the Hathua Estate or Kalyanpur chieftaincy) was one of the most prominent, wealthy, and historically significant [[zamindari]] estates in the Saran division of Bihar, India.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=kUueDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT250&dq=Hathwa+Raj&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjwpeb52oGWAxX9d2wGHQjqFWkQ6AF6BAgQEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false Ansari, T. H. (2019). Mughal Administration and the Zamindars of Bihar. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis.]</ref> Functioning as a semi-autonomous chieftaincy during the Mughal era and later as a premier zamindari under British colonial administration, the estate is renowned for its vast wealth, its deep genealogical history, and its socio-cultural impact on the region.<br />
<br />
== Origins, Lineage, and Family Background ==<br />
The Hathwa Raj was governed by the '''Baghochia dynasty''', a lineage of [[Bhumihars]] belonging to the [[Vatsa|Vats gotra]]. Recognized as one of the oldest aristocratic families in Bihar, the dynasty claims a history that stretches back over two millennia.<br />
<br />
* '''Legendary Foundation:''' Family traditions trace the estate's origins to '''Raja Bir Sen''' in the 6th century BCE, who is said to have received land after participating in a military campaign for the Kosala kingdom, eventually displacing local Chero tribes.<br />
* '''Patronymic Evolution:''' The royal house documented over 106 generations of rulers. Their patronymic title shifted over the centuries to reflect changing political alliances and imperial grants: starting as "Sen", changing to "Sinha" by the 16th descent, "Mal" by the 83rd, and finally "Sahi" (or Shahi) from the 87th generation onward.<br />
* '''Capitals and Seats of Power:''' Before settling in Hathwa, the seats of the Raj transitioned through several strategic locations, including Baghoch, Kalyanpur, Balchowra, and Huseypur.<br />
<br />
== Martial History and Domination in the Locality<ref>content://com.android.providers.downloads.documents/document/5802</ref> ==<br />
The military history of Hathwa Raj encompasses several centuries of territorial expansion, imperial campaign service under the Mughal Empire, regional rivalries in North Bihar, and armed opposition to the East India Company.<br />
<br />
=== Mughal era (16th–17th centuries) ===<br />
==== Kalyan Mal ====<br />
Around 1565, '''Maharaja Kalyan Mal''' (86th ruler) led a force of 5,000 infantry and 100 cavalry under Mughal Emperor Akbar to suppress a major rebellion in Eastern Bihar. Following his victory, Akbar awarded him the title of ''Maharaja'' and administrative authority over the region. Kalyan Mal established a fortified stronghold at Kalyanpur (in present-day Gopalganj district).<br />
<br />
==== Kshem Karan Sahi ====<br />
His successor, '''Maharaja Kshem Karan Sahi''' (87th ruler), commanded troops for Emperor Jahangir to suppress regional revolts. In recognition of his service, Jahangir conferred upon him the title ''Bahadur Shahi'' and the ''Mahi Maratib'' (Order of the Fish), an imperial honorific emblem. Kshem Karan relocated the capital to Hussepur, where he constructed a large fort.<br />
<br />
==== Jubaraj Sahi (Yuvaraj Shahi) ====<br />
During his reign from 1714 to 1737, '''Maharaja Jubaraj Sahi''' (95th ruler) expanded the estate's boundaries by capturing the Sipah pargana from an autonomous Afghan chieftain in North Bihar.<br />
<br />
=== Regional conflicts (18th century) ===<br />
==== Subjugation of Majhauli Raj ====<br />
'''Maharaja Sardar Sahi''' (98th ruler, r. 1744–1747) allied with Alivardi Khan, the Nawab of Bengal, in military operations. Sardar Sahi launched an offensive against the neighboring Majhauli Raj, destroying their fort (''garh''). As part of the peace terms, Majhauli rulers were prohibited from displaying their royal banners (''nishans'') and war drums (''dunkas'').<br />
<br />
=== Anti-colonial resistance (1747–1789) ===<br />
==== Fateh Sahi's rebellion ====<br />
'''Maharaja Fateh Bahadur Shahi (Fateh Sahi)''' (99th ruler, r. 1747–1789) actively resisted British East India Company rule in Bihar:<br />
* '''Alliance with Mir Qasim''': Provided military support to Mir Qasim leading up to the Battle of Buxar (1764).<br />
* '''Rejection of Diwani rights''': Strongly opposed the 1765 Treaty of Allahabad, which granted the East India Company ''Diwani'' (tax collection) rights over Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.<br />
* '''Guerrilla warfare''': Formed an alliance with the Raja of [[Bettiah Raj]] to wage guerrilla warfare against British forces.<br />
* '''Execution of Basant Sahi (1775)''': When the East India Company attempted to install his cousin, Babu Basant Sahi, as ruler in exchange for capturing Fateh Bahadur Shahi, Fateh Shahi launched a surprise attack at Yadavpur and killed Basant Sahi.<br />
* '''Establishment of Tamkuhi State''': Pushed out of Hussepur, Maharaja Fateh Bahadur Shahi established [[Tamkuhi Raj|Tamkuhi State]] in the Kingdom of Oudh (modern Deoria district).<br />
* '''Abdication''': In 1789, after more than two decades of armed insurgency, Fateh Sahi handed administration to his sons and became a ''Sanyasi''.<br />
<br />
=== British consolidation (19th century) ===<br />
==== Chattardhari Sahi ====<br />
'''Maharaja Chattardhari Sahi''' (100th ruler, r. 1789–1858) restored formal administration under the Decennial Settlement of 1790 by Lord Cornwallis. <br />
=== Summary of military campaigns ===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Ruler !! Reign / Era !! Major Campaign / Event !! Military & Territorial Outcome<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Kalyan Mal''' || c. 1565 || Eastern Bihar Campaign (Mughal-Akbar) || Granted title of ''Maharaja''; constructed Kalyanpur Fort.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Kshem Karan Sahi''' || 17th c. || Regional Pacification (Mughal-Jahangir) || Conferred ''Bahadur Shahi'' title and ''Mahi Maratib''; constructed Hussepur Fort.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Juvaraj Sahi''' || 1714–1737 || Sipah Pargana Campaign || Defeated Afghan chief; annexed Sipah pargana.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Sardar Sahi''' || 1744–1747 || Campaign against Majhauli Raj || Destroyed Majhauli Fort; banned rival military emblems (''nishans'' & ''dunkas'').<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Fateh Sahi''' || 1747–1789 || Anti-EIC Insurgency & Battle of Buxar || Waged 20-year guerrilla war; killed Basant Sahi (1775); founded Tamkuhi State.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Geography, Extent, and Economic Power ==<br />
At its zenith, the Hathwa Raj was a colossal administrative and economic entity. It was situated in the alluvial plains of North Bihar, bounded naturally by the Gandak River to the north, the Gogra River to the east, and the Ganges River to the south. <br />
[[File:Photo 2026-07-30 19-55-24.jpg|thumb|Parganas controlled by Hathwa Raj in Saran Division]] <br />
<br />
The estate's physical and economic baseline at its peak is outlined below:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="width:70%;"<br />
|+ Hathwa Raj Estate Baseline<br />
|-<br />
! Parameter !! Value / Scope !! Description<br />
|-<br />
| '''Territorial Extent''' || 800 sq. miles or 2080 sq. km<ref name=":0">[https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Bihar_and_Orissa_District_Gazeteers_Sara/hsQVAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&b] Bihar and Orissa District Gazeteers: Saran by Lewis Sydney Steward O'Malley</ref>|| Encompassed major parts of modern [[Gopalganj district|Gopalganj]], [[Siwan district|Siwan]], and [[Saran district|Chhapra]] districts.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Administrative Scope''' || 1,450 villages<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj by Anand Yang] </ref>|| Number of revenue-generating villages under direct proprietary right.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Demographics''' || 391,000+ subjects<ref>[https://archive.org/details/pli.kerala.rare.11274 Modern History of the Indian Chiefs by Ghose, Lokenath]</ref>|| Total recorded tenant population prior to the estate's dissolution.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Annual Revenue''' || Approx. 1,730,000 Rupees<ref name=":0" />|| Generated through agrarian tax on [[Ryot|ryots]], market tolls, and trade tariffs.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Chronology and Political Milestones ==<br />
The political survival of the Hathwa Raj relied on a delicate balance of diplomacy, military aid, and occasional rebellion against paramount imperial powers.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:100%; text-align:left;"<br />
|+ Key Historical Milestones<br />
|-<br />
! Year / Era !! Ruler !! Event / Significance<br />
|-<br />
| 6th Century BCE || Raja Bir Sen || Defeated the local [[Chero tribe|Chero]] chieftains; established the initial kingdom under the patronymic title "Sen".<ref>[https://archive.org/details/historyofhutwara00dutt/page/178/mode/2up G.N. Dutt - History of the Hutwa Raj] p. 179</ref><br />
|-<br />
| 1539 || Raja Jay Mal || Provided military asylum, food, and provisions to Mughal Emperor [[Humayun]] after the [[Battle of Chausa]].<ref>[https://archive.org/details/historyofhutwara00dutt/page/178/mode/2up] p. 181<br />
<br />
In some places, it's mentioned as battle of Buxar (1539)</ref><br />
|-<br />
| c. 1565 || Raja Kalyan Mal || Subdued regional rebellions in Eastern Bihar for Emperor [[Akbar]]; officially granted the hereditary title of '''Raja''' and shifted the capital to Kalyanpur (the capital seat of Kalyanpur was named after him).<ref>[https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Comprehensive_History_of_Bihar_pt_2_1987 <nowiki>Comprehensive History of Bihar: pt. 2. [1987]</nowiki>] p. 302, 324</ref><br />
|-<br />
| Early 17th C. || Maharaja Khemkaran Sahi Bahadur || Granted the honorific '''Maharaja Bahadur''' by Emperor [[Jahangir]] for active military assistance; established a strategic fort at Husainpur.<ref name=":3">[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.150766 The Golden Book Of India by Sir Roper Lethbridge]</ref><br />
|-<br />
| 1767 || Raja Fateh Sahi || Staged a fierce, decades-long guerrilla rebellion against the [[East India Company]] following the [[Treaty of Allahabad]].<ref name=":3" /><br />
|-<br />
| 1874–1896 || Maharaja Sir Kishen Pratap Sahi Bahadur || Led widespread socio-economic modernization, infrastructural changes, and famine relief programs across the estate.<br />
|-<br />
| 1952 || N/A || Official dissolution of the estate's administrative power via the Bihar Zamindari Abolition Act.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Civil and Cultural Contributions ==<br />
[[File:Thawe_Durga_Mandir_Outer_View.jpg|thumb|right|240px|The Thawe Durga Mandir in Gopalganj, an enduring spiritual landmark patronized by the Hathwa royal house.]]<br />
[[File:Rajendra-Prasad-Hathwa-Raj.jpg|thumb|Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the first president of India with members of the Hathwa royal family, Rajendra Prasad’s great uncle, Chaudhur Lal served as the Deewan of the Hathwa Raj.<ref>{{cite book |last=Prasad |first=Rajendra |title=India Divided |publisher=Penguin Books India |year=2010 |page=1 |isbn=978-0-14-306881-5}}</ref>]]<br />
The rulers of Hathwa acted as heavy patrons of religion, education, and public infrastructure, transforming their capital into a thriving socio-cultural hub. <br />
<br />
=== Educational Contibution ===<br />
Hathwa Raj was known for its notable secular contributions, especially in education and public infrastructure during the British period. The estate supported both traditional Indian and Western-style education. It sponsored numerous schools across its territories, including a Hathwa school and a Sanskrit ''pathshala'' in Machhagar Patti Jagdish village, along with two upper primary and nine lower primary schools. Historical records indicate that up to '''forty-four schools''' received full or partial funding from the estate. One of its flagship institutions was the '''Hathwa Eden School''' in Ratanchak, named after Lieutenant-Governor Sir Ashley Eden, whose foundation stone was laid in 1879.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj] p. 122 </ref> Additionally, the Maharani of Hathwa made a significant contribution of Rs. 15,600 toward the construction of a hostel for Hindu students at Patna College. During the same period, she also undertook several educational infrastructure projects, including the completion of hostel and associated buildings for the Northbrook School at Muzaffarpur and the construction of a hostel, out-houses, and residential quarters for the sons of zamindars and wards attached to the Zila School at Ranchi.<ref>[https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.05678 Report on the administration Bihar and Orissa 1914-1915] </ref> The Maharani also contributed Rs. 40,000 to the Ranchi College Fund.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj: Agrarian Relations in Colonial India, Saran District, 1793-1920] by Anand Yang, p. 123</ref> These initiatives demonstrated the Hathwa Raj’s active role in promoting educational access and supporting public welfare projects in the region.<br />
<br />
=== Infrastructure & Health ===<br />
Under Maharaja Sir Kishen Pratap Sahi Bahadur, the administration funded the construction of the Hathwa Eden School, the Raj dispensary, a post office, and the Durga Medical Hall. <br />
<br />
=== Commercial Hub ===<br />
By the 19th century, Hathwa was noted for its extensive bazaars and bi-weekly markets, attracting traders from across the province and facilitating regional trade. <br />
<br />
=== Religious Patronage ===<br />
Hathwa Raj was noted for its patronage of Hindu religious institutions and charitable works. <br />
<br />
* '''Gopal Mandir -''' The estate's principal religious establishment was the Gopal Mandir at Hathwa, housing the images of Radha and Krishna, which was regarded as the '''largest temple in Bihar''' and was reportedly constructed at a cost of '''four lakh rupees'''.<ref name=":1">[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj: Agrarian Relations in Colonial India, Saran District, 1793-1920 By Anand A. Yang] p. 122</ref> <br />
<br />
* '''[[Thawe Mandir]] -''' The royal family are ardent devotees of Goddess Durga. An earlier ruler, '''Maharaja Yuvraj Shahi Bahadur''', is said to have '''constructed the temple''' after seeing the goddess in a dream while resting in a jungle. According to history and tradition, this vision helped him defeat his arch-rival, the Afghan zamindar Kabul Muhammad. The [[Thawe Mandir]] remains a testament of their religious influence. The annual Durga Puja at Thawe was a grand state event, characterized by the Maharaja holding an annual ''durbar'' at the Sheesh Mahal, followed by a procession via elephant and buggy for ''darshan'' on Vijayadashami.<ref>[https://www.thawemandir.org/about/mythology thawemandir.org]</ref><ref name=":1" /> <ref>[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.150766/page/n197/mode/2up THE GOLDEN BOOK OF INDI] p. 174</ref><br />
<br />
* '''''Shivalaya'' at Banaras''' and various other temples and religious ceremonies were sponsored by Hathwa Raj family.<ref name=":1" /><br />
<br />
* '''Dussera Celebration -''' Dussehra (Dashara) was the most important annual ceremonial festival of the Hathwa Raj estate and served both as a religious observance and a public affirmation of the authority of the Hathwa Maharaja. It marked the beginning of the agricultural year, during which tenants visited the Hathwa palace to offer presents and convey their congratulations to the ruler. The Maharaja granted a formal darshan (audience) to his subjects, while European guests were entertained with receptions, elephant processions, and fireworks.<ref name=":2">[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false Between Raja and Raiyat: The Structures of Control in the Great Estate of Hathwa] p. 115</ref> The festival also reinforced the political and social hierarchy of the estate. Village headmen (''jeth-raiyats'') were ceremonially presented with turbans as symbols of their authority, while the Maharaja distributed cash gifts, generally four to eight rupees, to the headmen and sweets to the villagers. These rituals affirmed the Hathwa Raj's leadership, strengthened ties between the ruler and his tenants, and symbolized the unity of the estate under the Raja's authority. The celebrations thus combined religious devotion with public displays of loyalty, patronage, and royal prestige. <ref name=":2" /><ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj: Agrarian Relations in Colonial India, Saran District, 1793-1920]<br />
<br />
[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false By Anand A. Yang] p. 116</ref><ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false Between Raja and Raiyat: The Structures of Control in the Great Estate of Hathwa] p. 137</ref> In the present day, although the grandeur of the former zamindari-era celebrations has diminished, the Hathwa Raj family continues to observe several traditional customs. According to Maharaja Bahadur Sri Mrigendra Pratap Sahi, family members still gather at Hathwa during Durga Puja to worship their kuldevi, Thawe Maiyya, and remain there until Diwali. Ceremonial traditions such as the Maharaja's procession in a horse-drawn buggy to the Gopal Mandir, the annual durbar at the Sheesh Mahal, and the elephant ride for Vijayadashami darshan have been discontinued. However, the family continues the worship of the royal armoury ('''''Shastra Puja'''''), followed by a ceremonial guard of honour, and maintains the traditional practice of buffalo and goat sacrifice during the Sandhi Puja.<ref>[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/ex-zamindars-tryst-with-durga-puja/articleshow/16908429.cms Reminiscing the grandeur of yore] TOI article</ref><br />
<br />
=== Social Reform ===<br />
Behind the scenes, the internal hierarchy of the estate showed flashes of progressive reform. For instance, in the early 20th century, Binodini Dutt, the wife of the estate's Dewan (personal secretary), was heavily influenced by reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar. She actively aided in state affairs and vehemently protected young widows within the estate from oppressive traditional customs.<br />
<br />
== Heritage and Landmarks Gallery ==<br />
[[File:Maharaja Mrigendra Pratap Shahi Bahadur.jpg|thumb|Maharaja Mrigendra Pratap Shahi, the current titular chief of Hathwa Raj with Maharani sahiba Punam Shahi.]]<br />
<br />
== Current State and Legacy ==<br />
Like all princely estates and zamindaris in India, the legal and political authority of the Hathwa Raj ceased with the post-independence abolition of the Zamindari system in 1952. <br />
<br />
Today, the Hathwa Raj exists primarily as a rich cultural legacy. Its physical remnants—the residential palaces, the Gopal Mandir, and administrative ruins—still stand in the [[Gopalganj district]] as heritage landmarks. The royal family continues to maintain certain private traditions and religious rites, particularly the ritual animal sacrifices and ceremonies during the Thawe Durga Puja. To the local population, the Hathwa Raj remains a defining pillar of regional identity, anchoring the history of North Bihar to an era of ancient lineages and profound architectural heritage.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references responsive="2" /></div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=Hathwa_Raj&diff=664Hathwa Raj2026-08-03T10:56:21Z<p>Jalewar: /* Civil and Cultural Contributions */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox<br />
| title = Hathwa Raj<br />
| image = Hathwa_Raj_Palace_Facade.jpg<br />
| caption = The Hathwa Raj Palace in Gopalganj, Bihar<br />
| label1 = Entity Type<br />
| data1 = Zamindari Estate<br />
| label2 = State<br />
| data2 = Bihar, India<br />
| label3 = Division<br />
| data3 = Saran division<br />
| label4 = Capital / Seat<br />
| data4 = Hathwa (historically Baghoch, Kalyanpur, Huseypur)<br />
| label5 = Dynasty<br />
| data5 = Baghochia Bhumihar<br />
| label6 = Founded<br />
| data6 = 6th century BCE (legendary)<br />
| label7 = Abolished<br />
| data7 = 1952 (Zamindari Abolition Act)<br />
| label8 = Total Area<br />
| data8 = 800 sq mi (2072 sq km or 512,000 acres)<br />
| label9 = Population<br />
| data9 = 391,000 (pre independence)<br />
| label10 = Revenue <br />
| data10 = 17,30,000<br />
| label11 = Gotra<br />
| data11 = Vatsa<br />
}}<br />
The '''Hathwa Raj''' (also known as the Hathua Estate or Kalyanpur chieftaincy) was one of the most prominent, wealthy, and historically significant [[zamindari]] estates in the Saran division of Bihar, India.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=kUueDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT250&dq=Hathwa+Raj&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjwpeb52oGWAxX9d2wGHQjqFWkQ6AF6BAgQEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false Ansari, T. H. (2019). Mughal Administration and the Zamindars of Bihar. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis.]</ref> Functioning as a semi-autonomous chieftaincy during the Mughal era and later as a premier zamindari under British colonial administration, the estate is renowned for its vast wealth, its deep genealogical history, and its socio-cultural impact on the region.<br />
<br />
== Origins, Lineage, and Family Background ==<br />
The Hathwa Raj was governed by the '''Baghochia dynasty''', a lineage of [[Bhumihars]] belonging to the [[Vatsa|Vats gotra]]. Recognized as one of the oldest aristocratic families in Bihar, the dynasty claims a history that stretches back over two millennia.<br />
<br />
* '''Legendary Foundation:''' Family traditions trace the estate's origins to '''Raja Bir Sen''' in the 6th century BCE, who is said to have received land after participating in a military campaign for the Kosala kingdom, eventually displacing local Chero tribes.<br />
* '''Patronymic Evolution:''' The royal house documented over 106 generations of rulers. Their patronymic title shifted over the centuries to reflect changing political alliances and imperial grants: starting as "Sen", changing to "Sinha" by the 16th descent, "Mal" by the 83rd, and finally "Sahi" (or Shahi) from the 87th generation onward.<br />
* '''Capitals and Seats of Power:''' Before settling in Hathwa, the seats of the Raj transitioned through several strategic locations, including Baghoch, Kalyanpur, Balchowra, and Huseypur.<br />
<br />
== Martial History and Domination in the Locality<ref>content://com.android.providers.downloads.documents/document/5802</ref> ==<br />
The military history of Hathwa Raj encompasses several centuries of territorial expansion, imperial campaign service under the Mughal Empire, regional rivalries in North Bihar, and armed opposition to the East India Company.<br />
<br />
=== Mughal era (16th–17th centuries) ===<br />
==== Kalyan Mal ====<br />
Around 1565, '''Maharaja Kalyan Mal''' (86th ruler) led a force of 5,000 infantry and 100 cavalry under Mughal Emperor Akbar to suppress a major rebellion in Eastern Bihar. Following his victory, Akbar awarded him the title of ''Maharaja'' and administrative authority over the region. Kalyan Mal established a fortified stronghold at Kalyanpur (in present-day Gopalganj district).<br />
<br />
==== Kshem Karan Sahi ====<br />
His successor, '''Maharaja Kshem Karan Sahi''' (87th ruler), commanded troops for Emperor Jahangir to suppress regional revolts. In recognition of his service, Jahangir conferred upon him the title ''Bahadur Shahi'' and the ''Mahi Maratib'' (Order of the Fish), an imperial honorific emblem. Kshem Karan relocated the capital to Hussepur, where he constructed a large fort.<br />
<br />
==== Jubaraj Sahi (Yuvaraj Shahi) ====<br />
During his reign from 1714 to 1737, '''Maharaja Jubaraj Sahi''' (95th ruler) expanded the estate's boundaries by capturing the Sipah pargana from an autonomous Afghan chieftain in North Bihar.<br />
<br />
=== Regional conflicts (18th century) ===<br />
==== Subjugation of Majhauli Raj ====<br />
'''Maharaja Sardar Sahi''' (98th ruler, r. 1744–1747) allied with Alivardi Khan, the Nawab of Bengal, in military operations. Sardar Sahi launched an offensive against the neighboring Majhauli Raj, destroying their fort (''garh''). As part of the peace terms, Majhauli rulers were prohibited from displaying their royal banners (''nishans'') and war drums (''dunkas'').<br />
<br />
=== Anti-colonial resistance (1747–1789) ===<br />
==== Fateh Sahi's rebellion ====<br />
'''Maharaja Fateh Bahadur Shahi (Fateh Sahi)''' (99th ruler, r. 1747–1789) actively resisted British East India Company rule in Bihar:<br />
* '''Alliance with Mir Qasim''': Provided military support to Mir Qasim leading up to the Battle of Buxar (1764).<br />
* '''Rejection of Diwani rights''': Strongly opposed the 1765 Treaty of Allahabad, which granted the East India Company ''Diwani'' (tax collection) rights over Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.<br />
* '''Guerrilla warfare''': Formed an alliance with the Raja of [[Bettiah Raj]] to wage guerrilla warfare against British forces.<br />
* '''Execution of Basant Sahi (1775)''': When the East India Company attempted to install his cousin, Babu Basant Sahi, as ruler in exchange for capturing Fateh Bahadur Shahi, Fateh Shahi launched a surprise attack at Yadavpur and killed Basant Sahi.<br />
* '''Establishment of Tamkuhi State''': Pushed out of Hussepur, Maharaja Fateh Bahadur Shahi established [[Tamkuhi Raj|Tamkuhi State]] in the Kingdom of Oudh (modern Deoria district).<br />
* '''Abdication''': In 1789, after more than two decades of armed insurgency, Fateh Sahi handed administration to his sons and became a ''Sanyasi''.<br />
<br />
=== British consolidation (19th century) ===<br />
==== Chattardhari Sahi ====<br />
'''Maharaja Chattardhari Sahi''' (100th ruler, r. 1789–1858) restored formal administration under the Decennial Settlement of 1790 by Lord Cornwallis. <br />
=== Summary of military campaigns ===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Ruler !! Reign / Era !! Major Campaign / Event !! Military & Territorial Outcome<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Kalyan Mal''' || c. 1565 || Eastern Bihar Campaign (Mughal-Akbar) || Granted title of ''Maharaja''; constructed Kalyanpur Fort.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Kshem Karan Sahi''' || 17th c. || Regional Pacification (Mughal-Jahangir) || Conferred ''Bahadur Shahi'' title and ''Mahi Maratib''; constructed Hussepur Fort.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Juvaraj Sahi''' || 1714–1737 || Sipah Pargana Campaign || Defeated Afghan chief; annexed Sipah pargana.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Sardar Sahi''' || 1744–1747 || Campaign against Majhauli Raj || Destroyed Majhauli Fort; banned rival military emblems (''nishans'' & ''dunkas'').<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Fateh Sahi''' || 1747–1789 || Anti-EIC Insurgency & Battle of Buxar || Waged 20-year guerrilla war; killed Basant Sahi (1775); founded Tamkuhi State.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Geography, Extent, and Economic Power ==<br />
At its zenith, the Hathwa Raj was a colossal administrative and economic entity. It was situated in the alluvial plains of North Bihar, bounded naturally by the Gandak River to the north, the Gogra River to the east, and the Ganges River to the south. <br />
[[File:Photo 2026-07-30 19-55-24.jpg|thumb|Parganas controlled by Hathwa Raj in Saran Division]] <br />
<br />
The estate's physical and economic baseline at its peak is outlined below:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="width:70%;"<br />
|+ Hathwa Raj Estate Baseline<br />
|-<br />
! Parameter !! Value / Scope !! Description<br />
|-<br />
| '''Territorial Extent''' || 800 sq. miles or 2080 sq. km<ref name=":0">[https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Bihar_and_Orissa_District_Gazeteers_Sara/hsQVAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&b] Bihar and Orissa District Gazeteers: Saran by Lewis Sydney Steward O'Malley</ref>|| Encompassed major parts of modern [[Gopalganj district|Gopalganj]], [[Siwan district|Siwan]], and [[Saran district|Chhapra]] districts.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Administrative Scope''' || 1,450 villages<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj by Anand Yang] </ref>|| Number of revenue-generating villages under direct proprietary right.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Demographics''' || 391,000+ subjects<ref>[https://archive.org/details/pli.kerala.rare.11274 Modern History of the Indian Chiefs by Ghose, Lokenath]</ref>|| Total recorded tenant population prior to the estate's dissolution.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Annual Revenue''' || Approx. 1,730,000 Rupees<ref name=":0" />|| Generated through agrarian tax on [[Ryot|ryots]], market tolls, and trade tariffs.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Chronology and Political Milestones ==<br />
The political survival of the Hathwa Raj relied on a delicate balance of diplomacy, military aid, and occasional rebellion against paramount imperial powers.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:100%; text-align:left;"<br />
|+ Key Historical Milestones<br />
|-<br />
! Year / Era !! Ruler !! Event / Significance<br />
|-<br />
| 6th Century BCE || Raja Bir Sen || Defeated the local [[Chero tribe|Chero]] chieftains; established the initial kingdom under the patronymic title "Sen".<ref>[https://archive.org/details/historyofhutwara00dutt/page/178/mode/2up G.N. Dutt - History of the Hutwa Raj] p. 179</ref><br />
|-<br />
| 1539 || Raja Jay Mal || Provided military asylum, food, and provisions to Mughal Emperor [[Humayun]] after the [[Battle of Chausa]].<ref>[https://archive.org/details/historyofhutwara00dutt/page/178/mode/2up] p. 181<br />
<br />
In some places, it's mentioned as battle of Buxar (1539)</ref><br />
|-<br />
| c. 1565 || Raja Kalyan Mal || Subdued regional rebellions in Eastern Bihar for Emperor [[Akbar]]; officially granted the hereditary title of '''Raja''' and shifted the capital to Kalyanpur (the capital seat of Kalyanpur was named after him).<ref>[https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Comprehensive_History_of_Bihar_pt_2_1987 <nowiki>Comprehensive History of Bihar: pt. 2. [1987]</nowiki>] p. 302, 324</ref><br />
|-<br />
| Early 17th C. || Maharaja Khemkaran Sahi Bahadur || Granted the honorific '''Maharaja Bahadur''' by Emperor [[Jahangir]] for active military assistance; established a strategic fort at Husainpur.<ref name=":3">[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.150766 The Golden Book Of India by Sir Roper Lethbridge]</ref><br />
|-<br />
| 1767 || Raja Fateh Sahi || Staged a fierce, decades-long guerrilla rebellion against the [[East India Company]] following the [[Treaty of Allahabad]].<ref name=":3" /><br />
|-<br />
| 1874–1896 || Maharaja Sir Kishen Pratap Sahi Bahadur || Led widespread socio-economic modernization, infrastructural changes, and famine relief programs across the estate.<br />
|-<br />
| 1952 || N/A || Official dissolution of the estate's administrative power via the Bihar Zamindari Abolition Act.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Civil and Cultural Contributions ==<br />
[[File:Thawe_Durga_Mandir_Outer_View.jpg|thumb|right|240px|The Thawe Durga Mandir in Gopalganj, an enduring spiritual landmark patronized by the Hathwa royal house.]]<br />
[[File:Rajendra-Prasad-Hathwa-Raj.jpg|thumb|Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the first president of India with members of the Hathwa royal family, Rajendra Prasad’s great uncle, Chaudhur Lal served as the Deewan of the Hathwa Raj.<ref>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=3FdeGtdlinoC&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&lpg=PR1&dq=autobiography%20of%20Rajendra%20Prasad&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false</ref>]]<br />
The rulers of Hathwa acted as heavy patrons of religion, education, and public infrastructure, transforming their capital into a thriving socio-cultural hub. <br />
<br />
=== Educational Contibution ===<br />
Hathwa Raj was known for its notable secular contributions, especially in education and public infrastructure during the British period. The estate supported both traditional Indian and Western-style education. It sponsored numerous schools across its territories, including a Hathwa school and a Sanskrit ''pathshala'' in Machhagar Patti Jagdish village, along with two upper primary and nine lower primary schools. Historical records indicate that up to '''forty-four schools''' received full or partial funding from the estate. One of its flagship institutions was the '''Hathwa Eden School''' in Ratanchak, named after Lieutenant-Governor Sir Ashley Eden, whose foundation stone was laid in 1879.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj] p. 122 </ref> Additionally, the Maharani of Hathwa made a significant contribution of Rs. 15,600 toward the construction of a hostel for Hindu students at Patna College. During the same period, she also undertook several educational infrastructure projects, including the completion of hostel and associated buildings for the Northbrook School at Muzaffarpur and the construction of a hostel, out-houses, and residential quarters for the sons of zamindars and wards attached to the Zila School at Ranchi.<ref>[https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.05678 Report on the administration Bihar and Orissa 1914-1915] </ref> The Maharani also contributed Rs. 40,000 to the Ranchi College Fund.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj: Agrarian Relations in Colonial India, Saran District, 1793-1920] by Anand Yang, p. 123</ref> These initiatives demonstrated the Hathwa Raj’s active role in promoting educational access and supporting public welfare projects in the region.<br />
<br />
=== Infrastructure & Health ===<br />
Under Maharaja Sir Kishen Pratap Sahi Bahadur, the administration funded the construction of the Hathwa Eden School, the Raj dispensary, a post office, and the Durga Medical Hall. <br />
<br />
=== Commercial Hub ===<br />
By the 19th century, Hathwa was noted for its extensive bazaars and bi-weekly markets, attracting traders from across the province and facilitating regional trade. <br />
<br />
=== Religious Patronage ===<br />
Hathwa Raj was noted for its patronage of Hindu religious institutions and charitable works. <br />
<br />
* '''Gopal Mandir -''' The estate's principal religious establishment was the Gopal Mandir at Hathwa, housing the images of Radha and Krishna, which was regarded as the '''largest temple in Bihar''' and was reportedly constructed at a cost of '''four lakh rupees'''.<ref name=":1">[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj: Agrarian Relations in Colonial India, Saran District, 1793-1920 By Anand A. Yang] p. 122</ref> <br />
<br />
* '''[[Thawe Mandir]] -''' The royal family are ardent devotees of Goddess Durga. An earlier ruler, '''Maharaja Yuvraj Shahi Bahadur''', is said to have '''constructed the temple''' after seeing the goddess in a dream while resting in a jungle. According to history and tradition, this vision helped him defeat his arch-rival, the Afghan zamindar Kabul Muhammad. The [[Thawe Mandir]] remains a testament of their religious influence. The annual Durga Puja at Thawe was a grand state event, characterized by the Maharaja holding an annual ''durbar'' at the Sheesh Mahal, followed by a procession via elephant and buggy for ''darshan'' on Vijayadashami.<ref>[https://www.thawemandir.org/about/mythology thawemandir.org]</ref><ref name=":1" /> <ref>[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.150766/page/n197/mode/2up THE GOLDEN BOOK OF INDI] p. 174</ref><br />
<br />
* '''''Shivalaya'' at Banaras''' and various other temples and religious ceremonies were sponsored by Hathwa Raj family.<ref name=":1" /><br />
<br />
* '''Dussera Celebration -''' Dussehra (Dashara) was the most important annual ceremonial festival of the Hathwa Raj estate and served both as a religious observance and a public affirmation of the authority of the Hathwa Maharaja. It marked the beginning of the agricultural year, during which tenants visited the Hathwa palace to offer presents and convey their congratulations to the ruler. The Maharaja granted a formal darshan (audience) to his subjects, while European guests were entertained with receptions, elephant processions, and fireworks.<ref name=":2">[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false Between Raja and Raiyat: The Structures of Control in the Great Estate of Hathwa] p. 115</ref> The festival also reinforced the political and social hierarchy of the estate. Village headmen (''jeth-raiyats'') were ceremonially presented with turbans as symbols of their authority, while the Maharaja distributed cash gifts, generally four to eight rupees, to the headmen and sweets to the villagers. These rituals affirmed the Hathwa Raj's leadership, strengthened ties between the ruler and his tenants, and symbolized the unity of the estate under the Raja's authority. The celebrations thus combined religious devotion with public displays of loyalty, patronage, and royal prestige. <ref name=":2" /><ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj: Agrarian Relations in Colonial India, Saran District, 1793-1920]<br />
<br />
[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false By Anand A. Yang] p. 116</ref><ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false Between Raja and Raiyat: The Structures of Control in the Great Estate of Hathwa] p. 137</ref> In the present day, although the grandeur of the former zamindari-era celebrations has diminished, the Hathwa Raj family continues to observe several traditional customs. According to Maharaja Bahadur Sri Mrigendra Pratap Sahi, family members still gather at Hathwa during Durga Puja to worship their kuldevi, Thawe Maiyya, and remain there until Diwali. Ceremonial traditions such as the Maharaja's procession in a horse-drawn buggy to the Gopal Mandir, the annual durbar at the Sheesh Mahal, and the elephant ride for Vijayadashami darshan have been discontinued. However, the family continues the worship of the royal armoury ('''''Shastra Puja'''''), followed by a ceremonial guard of honour, and maintains the traditional practice of buffalo and goat sacrifice during the Sandhi Puja.<ref>[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/ex-zamindars-tryst-with-durga-puja/articleshow/16908429.cms Reminiscing the grandeur of yore] TOI article</ref><br />
<br />
=== Social Reform ===<br />
Behind the scenes, the internal hierarchy of the estate showed flashes of progressive reform. For instance, in the early 20th century, Binodini Dutt, the wife of the estate's Dewan (personal secretary), was heavily influenced by reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar. She actively aided in state affairs and vehemently protected young widows within the estate from oppressive traditional customs.<br />
<br />
== Heritage and Landmarks Gallery ==<br />
[[File:Maharaja Mrigendra Pratap Shahi Bahadur.jpg|thumb|Maharaja Mrigendra Pratap Shahi, the current titular chief of Hathwa Raj with Maharani sahiba Punam Shahi.]]<br />
<br />
== Current State and Legacy ==<br />
Like all princely estates and zamindaris in India, the legal and political authority of the Hathwa Raj ceased with the post-independence abolition of the Zamindari system in 1952. <br />
<br />
Today, the Hathwa Raj exists primarily as a rich cultural legacy. Its physical remnants—the residential palaces, the Gopal Mandir, and administrative ruins—still stand in the [[Gopalganj district]] as heritage landmarks. The royal family continues to maintain certain private traditions and religious rites, particularly the ritual animal sacrifices and ceremonies during the Thawe Durga Puja. To the local population, the Hathwa Raj remains a defining pillar of regional identity, anchoring the history of North Bihar to an era of ancient lineages and profound architectural heritage.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references responsive="2" /></div>Jalewarhttps://www.babhanwiki.com/index.php?title=Hathwa_Raj&diff=663Hathwa Raj2026-08-03T10:53:27Z<p>Jalewar: Undid revision 662 by Jalewar (talk)</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox<br />
| title = Hathwa Raj<br />
| image = Hathwa_Raj_Palace_Facade.jpg<br />
| caption = The Hathwa Raj Palace in Gopalganj, Bihar<br />
| label1 = Entity Type<br />
| data1 = Zamindari Estate<br />
| label2 = State<br />
| data2 = Bihar, India<br />
| label3 = Division<br />
| data3 = Saran division<br />
| label4 = Capital / Seat<br />
| data4 = Hathwa (historically Baghoch, Kalyanpur, Huseypur)<br />
| label5 = Dynasty<br />
| data5 = Baghochia Bhumihar<br />
| label6 = Founded<br />
| data6 = 6th century BCE (legendary)<br />
| label7 = Abolished<br />
| data7 = 1952 (Zamindari Abolition Act)<br />
| label8 = Total Area<br />
| data8 = 800 sq mi (2072 sq km or 512,000 acres)<br />
| label9 = Population<br />
| data9 = 391,000 (pre independence)<br />
| label10 = Revenue <br />
| data10 = 17,30,000<br />
| label11 = Gotra<br />
| data11 = Vatsa<br />
}}<br />
The '''Hathwa Raj''' (also known as the Hathua Estate or Kalyanpur chieftaincy) was one of the most prominent, wealthy, and historically significant [[zamindari]] estates in the Saran division of Bihar, India.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=kUueDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT250&dq=Hathwa+Raj&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjwpeb52oGWAxX9d2wGHQjqFWkQ6AF6BAgQEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false Ansari, T. H. (2019). Mughal Administration and the Zamindars of Bihar. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis.]</ref> Functioning as a semi-autonomous chieftaincy during the Mughal era and later as a premier zamindari under British colonial administration, the estate is renowned for its vast wealth, its deep genealogical history, and its socio-cultural impact on the region.<br />
<br />
== Origins, Lineage, and Family Background ==<br />
The Hathwa Raj was governed by the '''Baghochia dynasty''', a lineage of [[Bhumihars]] belonging to the [[Vatsa|Vats gotra]]. Recognized as one of the oldest aristocratic families in Bihar, the dynasty claims a history that stretches back over two millennia.<br />
<br />
* '''Legendary Foundation:''' Family traditions trace the estate's origins to '''Raja Bir Sen''' in the 6th century BCE, who is said to have received land after participating in a military campaign for the Kosala kingdom, eventually displacing local Chero tribes.<br />
* '''Patronymic Evolution:''' The royal house documented over 106 generations of rulers. Their patronymic title shifted over the centuries to reflect changing political alliances and imperial grants: starting as "Sen", changing to "Sinha" by the 16th descent, "Mal" by the 83rd, and finally "Sahi" (or Shahi) from the 87th generation onward.<br />
* '''Capitals and Seats of Power:''' Before settling in Hathwa, the seats of the Raj transitioned through several strategic locations, including Baghoch, Kalyanpur, Balchowra, and Huseypur.<br />
<br />
== Martial History and Domination in the Locality<ref>content://com.android.providers.downloads.documents/document/5802</ref> ==<br />
The military history of Hathwa Raj encompasses several centuries of territorial expansion, imperial campaign service under the Mughal Empire, regional rivalries in North Bihar, and armed opposition to the East India Company.<br />
<br />
=== Mughal era (16th–17th centuries) ===<br />
==== Kalyan Mal ====<br />
Around 1565, '''Maharaja Kalyan Mal''' (86th ruler) led a force of 5,000 infantry and 100 cavalry under Mughal Emperor Akbar to suppress a major rebellion in Eastern Bihar. Following his victory, Akbar awarded him the title of ''Maharaja'' and administrative authority over the region. Kalyan Mal established a fortified stronghold at Kalyanpur (in present-day Gopalganj district).<br />
<br />
==== Kshem Karan Sahi ====<br />
His successor, '''Maharaja Kshem Karan Sahi''' (87th ruler), commanded troops for Emperor Jahangir to suppress regional revolts. In recognition of his service, Jahangir conferred upon him the title ''Bahadur Shahi'' and the ''Mahi Maratib'' (Order of the Fish), an imperial honorific emblem. Kshem Karan relocated the capital to Hussepur, where he constructed a large fort.<br />
<br />
==== Jubaraj Sahi (Yuvaraj Shahi) ====<br />
During his reign from 1714 to 1737, '''Maharaja Jubaraj Sahi''' (95th ruler) expanded the estate's boundaries by capturing the Sipah pargana from an autonomous Afghan chieftain in North Bihar.<br />
<br />
=== Regional conflicts (18th century) ===<br />
==== Subjugation of Majhauli Raj ====<br />
'''Maharaja Sardar Sahi''' (98th ruler, r. 1744–1747) allied with Alivardi Khan, the Nawab of Bengal, in military operations. Sardar Sahi launched an offensive against the neighboring Majhauli Raj, destroying their fort (''garh''). As part of the peace terms, Majhauli rulers were prohibited from displaying their royal banners (''nishans'') and war drums (''dunkas'').<br />
<br />
=== Anti-colonial resistance (1747–1789) ===<br />
==== Fateh Sahi's rebellion ====<br />
'''Maharaja Fateh Bahadur Shahi (Fateh Sahi)''' (99th ruler, r. 1747–1789) actively resisted British East India Company rule in Bihar:<br />
* '''Alliance with Mir Qasim''': Provided military support to Mir Qasim leading up to the Battle of Buxar (1764).<br />
* '''Rejection of Diwani rights''': Strongly opposed the 1765 Treaty of Allahabad, which granted the East India Company ''Diwani'' (tax collection) rights over Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.<br />
* '''Guerrilla warfare''': Formed an alliance with the Raja of [[Bettiah Raj]] to wage guerrilla warfare against British forces.<br />
* '''Execution of Basant Sahi (1775)''': When the East India Company attempted to install his cousin, Babu Basant Sahi, as ruler in exchange for capturing Fateh Bahadur Shahi, Fateh Shahi launched a surprise attack at Yadavpur and killed Basant Sahi.<br />
* '''Establishment of Tamkuhi State''': Pushed out of Hussepur, Maharaja Fateh Bahadur Shahi established [[Tamkuhi Raj|Tamkuhi State]] in the Kingdom of Oudh (modern Deoria district).<br />
* '''Abdication''': In 1789, after more than two decades of armed insurgency, Fateh Sahi handed administration to his sons and became a ''Sanyasi''.<br />
<br />
=== British consolidation (19th century) ===<br />
==== Chattardhari Sahi ====<br />
'''Maharaja Chattardhari Sahi''' (100th ruler, r. 1789–1858) restored formal administration under the Decennial Settlement of 1790 by Lord Cornwallis. <br />
=== Summary of military campaigns ===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Ruler !! Reign / Era !! Major Campaign / Event !! Military & Territorial Outcome<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Kalyan Mal''' || c. 1565 || Eastern Bihar Campaign (Mughal-Akbar) || Granted title of ''Maharaja''; constructed Kalyanpur Fort.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Kshem Karan Sahi''' || 17th c. || Regional Pacification (Mughal-Jahangir) || Conferred ''Bahadur Shahi'' title and ''Mahi Maratib''; constructed Hussepur Fort.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Juvaraj Sahi''' || 1714–1737 || Sipah Pargana Campaign || Defeated Afghan chief; annexed Sipah pargana.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Sardar Sahi''' || 1744–1747 || Campaign against Majhauli Raj || Destroyed Majhauli Fort; banned rival military emblems (''nishans'' & ''dunkas'').<br />
|-<br />
| '''Maharaja Fateh Sahi''' || 1747–1789 || Anti-EIC Insurgency & Battle of Buxar || Waged 20-year guerrilla war; killed Basant Sahi (1775); founded Tamkuhi State.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Geography, Extent, and Economic Power ==<br />
At its zenith, the Hathwa Raj was a colossal administrative and economic entity. It was situated in the alluvial plains of North Bihar, bounded naturally by the Gandak River to the north, the Gogra River to the east, and the Ganges River to the south. <br />
[[File:Photo 2026-07-30 19-55-24.jpg|thumb|Parganas controlled by Hathwa Raj in Saran Division]] <br />
<br />
The estate's physical and economic baseline at its peak is outlined below:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="width:70%;"<br />
|+ Hathwa Raj Estate Baseline<br />
|-<br />
! Parameter !! Value / Scope !! Description<br />
|-<br />
| '''Territorial Extent''' || 800 sq. miles or 2080 sq. km<ref name=":0">[https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Bihar_and_Orissa_District_Gazeteers_Sara/hsQVAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&b] Bihar and Orissa District Gazeteers: Saran by Lewis Sydney Steward O'Malley</ref>|| Encompassed major parts of modern [[Gopalganj district|Gopalganj]], [[Siwan district|Siwan]], and [[Saran district|Chhapra]] districts.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Administrative Scope''' || 1,450 villages<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj by Anand Yang] </ref>|| Number of revenue-generating villages under direct proprietary right.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Demographics''' || 391,000+ subjects<ref>[https://archive.org/details/pli.kerala.rare.11274 Modern History of the Indian Chiefs by Ghose, Lokenath]</ref>|| Total recorded tenant population prior to the estate's dissolution.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Annual Revenue''' || Approx. 1,730,000 Rupees<ref name=":0" />|| Generated through agrarian tax on [[Ryot|ryots]], market tolls, and trade tariffs.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Chronology and Political Milestones ==<br />
The political survival of the Hathwa Raj relied on a delicate balance of diplomacy, military aid, and occasional rebellion against paramount imperial powers.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:100%; text-align:left;"<br />
|+ Key Historical Milestones<br />
|-<br />
! Year / Era !! Ruler !! Event / Significance<br />
|-<br />
| 6th Century BCE || Raja Bir Sen || Defeated the local [[Chero tribe|Chero]] chieftains; established the initial kingdom under the patronymic title "Sen".<ref>[https://archive.org/details/historyofhutwara00dutt/page/178/mode/2up G.N. Dutt - History of the Hutwa Raj] p. 179</ref><br />
|-<br />
| 1539 || Raja Jay Mal || Provided military asylum, food, and provisions to Mughal Emperor [[Humayun]] after the [[Battle of Chausa]].<ref>[https://archive.org/details/historyofhutwara00dutt/page/178/mode/2up] p. 181<br />
<br />
In some places, it's mentioned as battle of Buxar (1539)</ref><br />
|-<br />
| c. 1565 || Raja Kalyan Mal || Subdued regional rebellions in Eastern Bihar for Emperor [[Akbar]]; officially granted the hereditary title of '''Raja''' and shifted the capital to Kalyanpur (the capital seat of Kalyanpur was named after him).<ref>[https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Comprehensive_History_of_Bihar_pt_2_1987 <nowiki>Comprehensive History of Bihar: pt. 2. [1987]</nowiki>] p. 302, 324</ref><br />
|-<br />
| Early 17th C. || Maharaja Khemkaran Sahi Bahadur || Granted the honorific '''Maharaja Bahadur''' by Emperor [[Jahangir]] for active military assistance; established a strategic fort at Husainpur.<ref name=":3">[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.150766 The Golden Book Of India by Sir Roper Lethbridge]</ref><br />
|-<br />
| 1767 || Raja Fateh Sahi || Staged a fierce, decades-long guerrilla rebellion against the [[East India Company]] following the [[Treaty of Allahabad]].<ref name=":3" /><br />
|-<br />
| 1874–1896 || Maharaja Sir Kishen Pratap Sahi Bahadur || Led widespread socio-economic modernization, infrastructural changes, and famine relief programs across the estate.<br />
|-<br />
| 1952 || N/A || Official dissolution of the estate's administrative power via the Bihar Zamindari Abolition Act.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Civil and Cultural Contributions ==<br />
[[File:Thawe_Durga_Mandir_Outer_View.jpg|thumb|right|240px|The Thawe Durga Mandir in Gopalganj, an enduring spiritual landmark patronized by the Hathwa royal house.]]<br />
[[File:Rajendra-Prasad-Hathwa-Raj.jpg|thumb|Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the first president of India with members of the Hathwa royal family, Rajendra Prasad’s great uncle, Chaudhur Lal served as the Deewan of the Hathwa Raj.<ref>http://pastpresidentsofindia.indiapress.org/raj.html</ref>]]<br />
The rulers of Hathwa acted as heavy patrons of religion, education, and public infrastructure, transforming their capital into a thriving socio-cultural hub. <br />
<br />
=== Educational Contibution ===<br />
Hathwa Raj was known for its notable secular contributions, especially in education and public infrastructure during the British period. The estate supported both traditional Indian and Western-style education. It sponsored numerous schools across its territories, including a Hathwa school and a Sanskrit ''pathshala'' in Machhagar Patti Jagdish village, along with two upper primary and nine lower primary schools. Historical records indicate that up to '''forty-four schools''' received full or partial funding from the estate. One of its flagship institutions was the '''Hathwa Eden School''' in Ratanchak, named after Lieutenant-Governor Sir Ashley Eden, whose foundation stone was laid in 1879.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj] p. 122 </ref> Additionally, the Maharani of Hathwa made a significant contribution of Rs. 15,600 toward the construction of a hostel for Hindu students at Patna College. During the same period, she also undertook several educational infrastructure projects, including the completion of hostel and associated buildings for the Northbrook School at Muzaffarpur and the construction of a hostel, out-houses, and residential quarters for the sons of zamindars and wards attached to the Zila School at Ranchi.<ref>[https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.05678 Report on the administration Bihar and Orissa 1914-1915] </ref> The Maharani also contributed Rs. 40,000 to the Ranchi College Fund.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj: Agrarian Relations in Colonial India, Saran District, 1793-1920] by Anand Yang, p. 123</ref> These initiatives demonstrated the Hathwa Raj’s active role in promoting educational access and supporting public welfare projects in the region.<br />
<br />
=== Infrastructure & Health ===<br />
Under Maharaja Sir Kishen Pratap Sahi Bahadur, the administration funded the construction of the Hathwa Eden School, the Raj dispensary, a post office, and the Durga Medical Hall. <br />
<br />
=== Commercial Hub ===<br />
By the 19th century, Hathwa was noted for its extensive bazaars and bi-weekly markets, attracting traders from across the province and facilitating regional trade. <br />
<br />
=== Religious Patronage ===<br />
Hathwa Raj was noted for its patronage of Hindu religious institutions and charitable works. <br />
<br />
* '''Gopal Mandir -''' The estate's principal religious establishment was the Gopal Mandir at Hathwa, housing the images of Radha and Krishna, which was regarded as the '''largest temple in Bihar''' and was reportedly constructed at a cost of '''four lakh rupees'''.<ref name=":1">[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj: Agrarian Relations in Colonial India, Saran District, 1793-1920 By Anand A. Yang] p. 122</ref> <br />
<br />
* '''[[Thawe Mandir]] -''' The royal family are ardent devotees of Goddess Durga. An earlier ruler, '''Maharaja Yuvraj Shahi Bahadur''', is said to have '''constructed the temple''' after seeing the goddess in a dream while resting in a jungle. According to history and tradition, this vision helped him defeat his arch-rival, the Afghan zamindar Kabul Muhammad. The [[Thawe Mandir]] remains a testament of their religious influence. The annual Durga Puja at Thawe was a grand state event, characterized by the Maharaja holding an annual ''durbar'' at the Sheesh Mahal, followed by a procession via elephant and buggy for ''darshan'' on Vijayadashami.<ref>[https://www.thawemandir.org/about/mythology thawemandir.org]</ref><ref name=":1" /> <ref>[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.150766/page/n197/mode/2up THE GOLDEN BOOK OF INDI] p. 174</ref><br />
<br />
* '''''Shivalaya'' at Banaras''' and various other temples and religious ceremonies were sponsored by Hathwa Raj family.<ref name=":1" /><br />
<br />
* '''Dussera Celebration -''' Dussehra (Dashara) was the most important annual ceremonial festival of the Hathwa Raj estate and served both as a religious observance and a public affirmation of the authority of the Hathwa Maharaja. It marked the beginning of the agricultural year, during which tenants visited the Hathwa palace to offer presents and convey their congratulations to the ruler. The Maharaja granted a formal darshan (audience) to his subjects, while European guests were entertained with receptions, elephant processions, and fireworks.<ref name=":2">[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false Between Raja and Raiyat: The Structures of Control in the Great Estate of Hathwa] p. 115</ref> The festival also reinforced the political and social hierarchy of the estate. Village headmen (''jeth-raiyats'') were ceremonially presented with turbans as symbols of their authority, while the Maharaja distributed cash gifts, generally four to eight rupees, to the headmen and sweets to the villagers. These rituals affirmed the Hathwa Raj's leadership, strengthened ties between the ruler and his tenants, and symbolized the unity of the estate under the Raja's authority. The celebrations thus combined religious devotion with public displays of loyalty, patronage, and royal prestige. <ref name=":2" /><ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false The Limited Raj: Agrarian Relations in Colonial India, Saran District, 1793-1920]<br />
<br />
[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false By Anand A. Yang] p. 116</ref><ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4Xy6EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false Between Raja and Raiyat: The Structures of Control in the Great Estate of Hathwa] p. 137</ref> In the present day, although the grandeur of the former zamindari-era celebrations has diminished, the Hathwa Raj family continues to observe several traditional customs. According to Maharaja Bahadur Sri Mrigendra Pratap Sahi, family members still gather at Hathwa during Durga Puja to worship their kuldevi, Thawe Maiyya, and remain there until Diwali. Ceremonial traditions such as the Maharaja's procession in a horse-drawn buggy to the Gopal Mandir, the annual durbar at the Sheesh Mahal, and the elephant ride for Vijayadashami darshan have been discontinued. However, the family continues the worship of the royal armoury ('''''Shastra Puja'''''), followed by a ceremonial guard of honour, and maintains the traditional practice of buffalo and goat sacrifice during the Sandhi Puja.<ref>[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/ex-zamindars-tryst-with-durga-puja/articleshow/16908429.cms Reminiscing the grandeur of yore] TOI article</ref><br />
<br />
=== Social Reform ===<br />
Behind the scenes, the internal hierarchy of the estate showed flashes of progressive reform. For instance, in the early 20th century, Binodini Dutt, the wife of the estate's Dewan (personal secretary), was heavily influenced by reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar. She actively aided in state affairs and vehemently protected young widows within the estate from oppressive traditional customs.<br />
<br />
== Heritage and Landmarks Gallery ==<br />
[[File:Maharaja Mrigendra Pratap Shahi Bahadur.jpg|thumb|Maharaja Mrigendra Pratap Shahi, the current titular chief of Hathwa Raj with Maharani sahiba Punam Shahi.]]<br />
<br />
== Current State and Legacy ==<br />
Like all princely estates and zamindaris in India, the legal and political authority of the Hathwa Raj ceased with the post-independence abolition of the Zamindari system in 1952. <br />
<br />
Today, the Hathwa Raj exists primarily as a rich cultural legacy. Its physical remnants—the residential palaces, the Gopal Mandir, and administrative ruins—still stand in the [[Gopalganj district]] as heritage landmarks. The royal family continues to maintain certain private traditions and religious rites, particularly the ritual animal sacrifices and ceremonies during the Thawe Durga Puja. To the local population, the Hathwa Raj remains a defining pillar of regional identity, anchoring the history of North Bihar to an era of ancient lineages and profound architectural heritage.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references responsive="2" /></div>Jalewar